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PAPERS

OF THE

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Vou. XI. — No. 1

_ INDIAN BURIAL PLACE
AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS

BY
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY

‘WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY
EARNEST A. HOOTON

FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1924

PAPERS

OF THE

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Vou. XI. — No. 1

INDIAN BURIAL PLACE
AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS

BY
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY

WITH NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS BY
EARNEST A. HOOTON

FOUR PLATES AND TWENTY ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1924

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NOTE

Accounts of a number of explorations carried on by the
late Professor Frederick W. Putnam, or under his direction,
remained unpublished at the time of his death. Two of the
most important of these, dealing with the archaeology of
Ohio, have since been brought out as parts of Volume VIII of
this series, and it is hoped that others will follow.

The exploration of the small burial place at Winthrop,
while merely an incident in Professor Putnam’s work, is
thought worthy~f record owing to the early historic period to
which the burials belong, and to the rarity of such dis-
coveries in Massachusetts.

CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
April 18, 1924

INDIAN BURIAL PLACE AT WINTHROP
MASSACHUSETTS

In April, 1888, workmen, excavating for the narrow gauge railroad
at Winthrop, Massachusetts, just across the harbor from Boston,
unearthed three or four Indian skeletons. The skull of one of these
lay in contact with pieces of thin copper, evidently parts of a copper
vessel which had been placed over the head. The greater part of the
skull was deeply stained by the metal which had preserved portions
of the hair and scalp, and what appear to be parts of the brain and
its membranes, also fragments of matting and other wrappings.
As soon as Mr. C. A. Hammond, superintendent of the road, heard
of the discovery, he secured the skulls and such other bones as had
not been destroyed, and presented them to the Peabody Museum.
On August 21, Mr. Hammond wrote to Professor Putnam as fol-
lows: ‘We are now obliged to make further excavations in the
pound ! where relics have been found, and have already unearthed
another skeleton, and more to follow, but I do not want to proceed
further . . . until you can see the situation and give us some ad-
vice.”’

Professor Putnam was unable to go to Winthrop at the time, and
arrangements were made for Mr. Hammond to discontinue the
work on the road at that point for a few weeks. On November 22,
the work of excavating the burials was begun under Professor Put-
nam’s personal direction, and was continued for three days. Five
graves were carefully opened. As these were the only ones within
the line of the roadway which needed immediate attention, and as
the weather meanwhile had become too cold to work to advantage,
further investigations were postponed. On March 30, 1890, excava-
tions were continued by Professor Putnam, and graves 8, 9, and 10
were opened. This burial place was located on the southern slope
of a low sandy hill on the site now occupied by Centre Station of
the Boston, Revere Beach, and Lynn Narrow Gauge Railroad. Its

1 Built by act of the authorities of Boston dated February 23, 1634.
1

2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

locality is shown on the accompanying sketch-map, plate 1, which
indicates only the streets in the immediate vicinity of the station.

The positions of the skeletons are illustrated in figure 1. They
were found at an average depth of about two feet, and artifacts
were found in all of the graves opened by Professor Putnam, with
the exception of number 3.

The pound in which the burials were discovered was built for the
protection of cattle owned by the settlers of Boston. On the 23rd of
February, 1634, the authorities voted that ‘‘there shall be a little
house built and a sufficiently payled yard to lodge cattle in of

Ficure 1

Burial Place at Winthrop: sketch-plan showing position of graves.

nights at Pullen Poynt Neck before the 14th day of ye next second
month 2

At the time of the discovery of the burials (1888), the place was
traditionally known as ‘‘The Pound.” In 1902, Mr. Charles W.
Hall wrote as follows regarding it:

The house and palisaded yard thus erected were certainly the first built by
the Massachusetts settlers within Winthrop territory. William Cheeseborough,
Constable of Boston, and cattle guard at Pullen Point Neck, must have had
his ‘‘corral’’ and house somewhere between the Court Park section and the
Town Hall, as the natural water supply for the cattle was the swamp that
formerly stood near the site of Winthrop Centre Station.?

From the above we may definitely assign to the burial place a
date some time previous to 1634; and judging from the artifacts un-
earthed, it seems probable that the period is very near the begin-

1 Charles W. Hall, History of Winthrop, 1902, p. 19. 2 Ibid.

PEABODY MusEuM PAPERS Vou. XI, No. 1, Puate 1

WINTHROP
HIGHLANDS

CENTRE STATION
SITE . OF
BURIAL PLACE

Map of Winthrop, Massachusetts, showing location of Burial Place. Only the streets
in the vicinity of Centre Station are indicated.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 3

ning of the seventeenth century. This locality was in the territory
of the Massachuset Indians, and the burial place undoubtedly be-
longs to that tribe.

The rarity of Indian cemeteries of the proto-historic period in
Massachusetts makes the interments here recorded of unusual in-
terest. The majority of Indian skeletons which have been un-
earthed in this Commonwealth belong to a somewhat later date,
and are usually unaccompanied by artifacts.

The first burials unearthed by the workmen are not located on
the plan, as their exact positions were not recorded. As already

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FIGURE 2

Section of bulrush mat showing weave. Found in contact
with copper bowl covering skull of the first
skeleton unearthed. (1/1.)

stated, the skull, which lay in contact with the copper vessel, and
the adhering portions of the grave wrappings were sent to the Mu-
seum with the other bones. No pipes, beads, or other ornaments
were noticed, such articles being easily overlooked.

This skull was that of an adult male, and, judging by the frag-
ments of wrapping adhering to the copper, the burial was the result
of careful preparation. The grave had apparently been lined or the
body covered with birch-bark, and well-preserved pieces formed the
outer portion of the adhering mass. The original pieces of bark had
been sewed together with split roots. It is possible that this may
have been a portion of a bark mat such as were used for portable

4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

lodge coverings by the Algonquian tribes inhabiting the birch-bark
area; but the sewing does not correspond to that occurring in ex-
amples of these bark mats in the Museum from the more eastern
Algonquians. Within this outer covering of birch-bark was a layer
of what appears to be the bark of the cedar, and within this, and in
contact with the copper vessel covering the head of the skeleton,
was a piece of woven bulrush mat which had been perfectly pre-
served by contact with the metal. The type of weaving shown in
this mat is illustrated in figure 2. The warp cords are in pairs and
are undoubtedly of twisted bast; the woof is of selected rushes.
According to both Roger Williams and John Josselyn, the interiors
of the more permanent Indian habitations of New England were
lined with ‘‘embroidered mats or with mats of rushes painted in
several colors.”’ The mats of the Ojibwa of the Great Lakes area

FIGURE 3

Incisors of beaver, used as chisels, Grave 1. (1/ 1.)

are doubtless very similar to those of the Indians of this region.
The color of the groundwork of the Ojibwa mats is the natural
brownish-yellow of the dried rushes, and pleasing patterns are pro-
duced in considerable variety by weaving in rushes dyed in various
colors. Both Williams and Josselyn undoubtedly refer to mats
which were woven in colors, not embroidered or painted. This
specimen is of special interest, as it is probably the only example
extant from New England. Mats from Algonquian tribes in general
are usually about 3 feet wide by 5 to 7 feet long, with cross-stripes,
lozenge-shaped figures, or other designs, usually in red, yellow, and
black. Although coarser, they resemble some of the well-known
commercial floor-mattings from China and Japan.

The metal object which lay in contact with the skull appears to

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AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 5)

have been a basin about 12 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep,
made from sheet-copper. It had become corroded in places and was
broken into numerous pieces. The largest fragment is about 7 by
4 inches. Many of the smaller pieces were apparently overlooked
by the workmen. The edge of the basin was not turned over or
wired, but was roughly cut and made smooth, probably by grind-
ing. This may possibly have been made by an Indian workman by
cutting a disc of the proper size from a sheet of copper and beating
it into concavo-convex form. Similar large drinking cups of this
metal were seen by Brereton in possession of the Indians of south-
ern Massachusetts in 1602.

Grave 1. This was opened by Professor Putnam. It was 30 inches
deep, and contained the skeleton of a man in a flexed position. Ly-

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FIGURE 4

Bone arrowpoints, Grave 1. (1/2.)

ing parallel to the spinal column, in the position shown in plate 2,
was a much corroded implement or bar of iron, 233 inches long, ¢ of
an inch wide, and } of an inch thick, one end of which tapered to a
chisel-like edge.

Over this implement were five bone points and an incisor of a
beaver such as were commonly hafted and used as chisels or knives
(figure 3). On the opposite side of the body was another group of
five bone points and a second beaver tooth. Both groups of points
are illustrated in figure 4. The position of the first group is shown
in the photograph. It seems probable that these points were all
that remained of two groups of arrows. It will be noticed that in the
first group the points lay nearly parallel with each other, with the

6 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

tips in one direction, as would be the case had they been attached to
shafts. The relative positions of the individual points in the second
group are not recorded. It is interesting to note in this connection
that the Virginia Indians used a beaver tooth, properly hafted, for
notching the feathered end of their arrow shafts.1

Many varieties of arrowpoints were used by the New England
Indians, including flint, bone, the hollowed tips of deer antler, eagle
claws, tails of the horseshoe-crab, and triangular points of sheet-
brass. At the time of the arrival of the colonists, sheet-brass points

Figure 5

One of the lumbar vertebrae of skeleton from
Grave 1, showing brass arrowpoint which had
been shot through the abdomen of
the Indian. (2/3.)

had almost wholly replaced those of flint. The arrows were care-
fully made. Elder twigs were a favorite wood for the shaft, into one
end of which was inserted a foreshaft of heavier wood, to which the
point was attached.

Higgeson, writing in 1629 of the arrows of this region, says that
some were headed with bone, some with brass.? These two varieties
of arrowpoints were found in the grave we are describing. The one
of brass had caused the death of this Indian. It was found half
buried in the forward portion of one of the lumbar vertebre, and is

1 Captain John Smith, Voyages and Discoveries, Arber Edition, vol. 1, pp. 364, 365.
2 New England’s Plantations, Massachusetts Historical Collections, 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 123.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS fi

shown in position in figure 5. The arrow had been shot into the
abdomen as the Indian was facing his opponent.

The only other artifacts recovered were a bead-like object of
sheet-copper, one end somewhat larger than the other, and a bone
point or awl, which was apparently in the earth used for filling the
grave,

Grave 2. This was dug to the depth of 25 feet and had been lined
with matting. It contained the flexed skeleton of a woman. At its
left side lay an unworked shell of Fulgur canaliculata, a species not

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FIGuRE 6
Shell of Fulgur canaliculata probably used as a drinking cup, Grave 2. (2/3.)

uncommon on the Massachusetts coast. This was probably used as
a drinking cup or dipper (figure 6). About a foot from the skull
were the three pottery vessels which are illustrated in figures 7 and
8. Near the left shoulder were also about twenty beads, approxi-
mately 4 inches in length and } inch in diameter, examples of which
are illustrated in figure 9, and also what appears to be a piece of a
skin garment in which the body was wrapped. Each bead was made
of a section of a twig, probably elder, with the pith removed, and
neatly covered with thin sheet-copper, the salts of which had pre-
served the two-ply twisted cord with which the beads had been

8 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

fastened together. These beads had not been strung end to end
as a necklace, but seem to have been fastened side by side into a
sort of band, similar to that taken from the Indian skeleton found
near Fall River in 1831, and later made famous by Longfellow as
the skeleton in armor. Beads similar to these, made of sheet-copper
or brass, were quite common among the New England Indians at a
very early date, and many have been taken from graves. Sheets of

FIGURE 7
Pottery vessel, Grave 2. (1/2.)

copper and brass were undoubtedly sold to the Indians of this re-
gion by European fishermen and explorers many years before the
arrival of the colonists. As early as 1524, Verrazano saw many
plates of wrought copper in possession of the Indians of southern
New England. These were undoubtedly of European origin. Brere-
ton in 1602 saw among the Indians of Massachusetts:

. a great store of Copper, some very red, and some of a paler colour
[brass]; none of them but have Chaines, Eare-rings, or Collars of this metall;

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 9

they head some of their Arrows herewith much like our broad Arrow heads,
very workmanly made. Their Chaines are many hollow pieces semented to-
gether, each piece of the bignesse of one of our reeds, a finger in length, ten or
twelve of them together on a string, which they weare about their neckes: their
Collars they weare about their bodies like Bandolieres a handfull broad, all hol-
low pieces, like the other, but somewhat shorter, foure hundred pieces in a Col-
lar, very fine and evenly set together. Besides these they have large drinking
cups made like Sculls [bowls], and other thinne plates of Copper, made much
like our Boare-spear blades, all of which they so little esteeme as they offered

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Figure 8
Pottery vessels, Grave 2. (1/2.)

their fairest Collars and Chaines for a Knife, or such like trifle, but we seemed
little to regard it.

The twisted cord on which the copper beads found with this
skeleton were strung is larger and coarser than is commonly used
for this purpose, and the material from which it is made has the ap-
pearance of sinew.

The three pottery vessels belong to the later Algonquian group.
The clay from which they are made is of good quality and is tem-
pered with crushed burnt shell. Cooking vessels having nearly
globular bodies like these were usually suspended over the fire.
The older pots with pointed bottoms belonging to the archaic
group of primitive New England pottery, sherds of which are
common in the older shell-heaps, were supported by hearth-stones
or were set a few inches into the ground, instead of being sus-
pended. The decoration upon these three vessels is characteristic

1 Brereton, Account of Gosnold’s Voyage, Mass. Hist. Coll., 3d Series, vol. vi, p. 91.

10 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

of the pottery of this region, and consists of incised lines or de-
pressed markings, probably made with pointed or notched sticks
or similar tools. On the body of the largest vessel, and also on the
one illustrated in figure 10, are faint impressions of cord-wrapped
paddles such as were used in pottery making over an extensive
area east of the Mississippi River.

The round-bottomed pottery of the later New England Algon-
quians has many characteristics of Iroquoian ware. The Iroquois
were excellent potters, and while the clay vessels of the two peoples
are as a rule easily distinguished, the influence of the work of these

FIGURE 9

Tubular beads of elder wood covered with thin sheet-copper, Grave 2. (1/1.)

New York tribes was marked on the fictile art of the natives of the
southern portion of New England.

The so-called “‘Red Paint”’ people, the oldest New England In-
dians of whom we have knowledge, made no pottery. The earliest
New England potters were undoubtedly the Algonquian tribes
whose refuse is found on many of the older village sites inland, and
especially in the ancient kitchen-middens or shell-heaps of our tide-
water region. The broken pottery from these sources shows that
the bottoms of the pots were more or less pointed. These vessels
could not stand upright without being supported by a tripod of
stones, or by being set with the pointed bottom an inch or two in the
earth. This older type of pottery extended southward along our
coast to Virginia, where it was used as late as the latter part of the
sixteenth century. Hariot describes its use as follows:

After they set them upon a heape of earth to stay them from fallinge, they
putt wood under which being kyndled one of them taketh great care that the
fyre burn equallye rounde abowt.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 11

The more or less globular bodies of the pots from these graves,
however, taken in connection with their restricted necks, seem to
indicate that they were intended principally for suspension by
means of a band encircling the vessel below the rim, to which cords
or thongs were fastened.

The rounded bottoms suspended a few inches from the live coals
would expose a large surface to the direct heat, without obstructing
the draft or deadening the fire. In ‘‘Mourt’s Relation” we have a
description of an Indian wigwam at Cape Cod in 1620. In the
midst of this mat-covered house was the fireplace, where were found
“four little trunches [crotched sticks] knockt into the ground and
small sticks laid over on which they hang their pots and what
they had to seeth.”’ }

The few other references to the earthenware of the Indians of
eastern Massachusetts are as follows. Gookin in 1674 writes:

The pots they seeth their food in, which were heretofore and yet are in use
among some of them are made of clay or earth, almost in the form of an egg
with the top taken off. But now they generally get kettles of brass, copper or
iron. These they found most lasting than those of clay, which were subject to
be broken, and the clay or earth they were made of was very scarce and dear.»

Morton tells us:

They have earthen potts of divers sizes, from quart to a gallon, 2 or 3, to
boyl their vitels in, very strong though they be thin like our iron pots.’

Champlain found pottery in use along the Massachusetts coast, and
says that ‘‘ when the natives eat Indian corn they boil it in earthern
pots which they make in a different way from ours.” 4

Of the many New England potsherds examined by the writer,
only one or two show indications that the vessel of which they
formed a part may have been made by the coiling process.

It seems doubtful if this method, so common in the West, was
used to any great extent by the northeastern tribes. The following,
as quoted by Laverdiére, from Sagard’s ‘‘ History of Canada,” writ-
ten in 1636, doubtless refers to Iroquoian potters; the description
may apply as well to the Algonquian potters of New England:

1 Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (London, 1622), Cheever’s Reprint, p. 39.
2 Gookin, Mass. Hist. Coll., 1st Series, vol. 1, p. 151.

3 Thomas Morton, New English Canaan (1637), Prince Scciety Reprint, p. 159.
4 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 1, p. 86.

12 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

They are skilful in making good earthen pots which they harden very well on
the hearth, and which are so strong that they do not, like our own, break over
the fire when having no water in them. But they cannot sustain dampness nor
cold water so long as our own, since they become brittle and break at the least
shock given them; otherwise they last very well. The savages make them by
taking some earth of the right kind, which they clean and knead well in their
hands, mixing with it, on what principle I know not, a small quantity of grease.
Then making the mass into the shape of a ball, they make an indentation in the
middle of it with the fist, which they make continually larger by striking re-

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Figure 10
Pottery vessel, Grave 4. (1/2.)

peatedly on the outside with a little wooden paddle as much as is necessary to
complete it. These vessels are of different sizes, without feet or handles, com-
pletely round like a ball, excepting the mouth, which projects a little.!

Grave 8. Skeleton of a child about one year old, at a depth of 2
feet. No artifacts were found with it.

Grave 4. A shallow grave containing the skeletons of a man, a
woman, and two children, in the pesitions shown in plate 3. Frag-
ments of the pottery vessel, illustrated in figure 10, lay near the

1 Champlain’s Voyages, Prince Society Reprint, vol. 11, p. 86, note.

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@ ALVTg ‘T ‘ON ‘TX “I0A suddvVq Waasay Adoavag

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 13

head of the woman. Beneath her head were 80 blue and white tu-
bular glass beads, 3 to 3 of an inch long and of various diameters,
also a few copper beads of about the same size. There were also
found in this grave 148 white beads made from the columella of one
of the larger univalves, probably Fulgur carica or Fulgur canalicu-
lata, and a few small discoidal beads of mussel shell (plate 4). The
white beads are of ancient type and were made before the common
white and purple wampum became the vogue among the Indians of
New England and the Middle States. This later commercial
wampum, made principally from the shell of the quahog, was in-
troduced into New England by the Dutch about 1628.

Grave 5. A much decayed skeleton of a man lay 2 feet below
the surface. The earth at this point was less sandy than the other

FiGurReE 11

Spoon made of antler, Grave 9. (1/2.)

sections of the cemetery, and the dampness caused a more rapid
disintegration of the bones. The only artifacts found were a few
tubular white shell beads and five tubular glass beads which lay
beneath the jaw.

Graves 6 and 7. Unearthed by workmen. Exact locality unre-
corded. No artifacts found with skeletons.

Grave 8. Skeleton of man, 2 feet below the surface, in the usual
flexed position, and facing southeast. The only implement re-
covered was a bone awl lying about 4 inches back from the verte-
bral column.

Grave 9. This contained the skeleton of a child, two to three
years old, at a depth of 14 inches, and judging by the objects found,
it must have been a girl. Near the head were fragments of a pot-
tery vessel of about the size and shape of the one illustrated in
figure 7; also the antler spoon shown in figure 11. Nearby lay the

14 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

stone pestle (figure 12) with its upper portion carved to represent
the head of an animal, also the small water-worn stone (figure 13)
which resembles the ordinary polish-
ing or sharpening stone although it
shows no sign of use. As one end of the
stone somewhat resembles an animal
head, it seems not unlikely that this
may have been a toy. Near the knees
of the skeleton was found the small pottery
vessel illustrated in figure 14. This also was
probably a toy. The only other artifact
recovered was a bone point, which may have
been thrown into the grave with the earth
when covering the body.

The pestle is of considerable interest as it
represents a type not uncommon among the
Algonquian tribes of New England and the
eastern sections of the Middle States, but
rare in the adjacent regions. Although no
object of European provenience was found
in this grave, the burial undoubtedly belongs
to the same period as the others in this
cemetery, which would indicate that pestles
of this general form, with or without the
terminating animal head, were used up to
about the beginning of the seventeenth
century. Judging from the collections from
Massachusetts in the Peabody Museum,
about five per cent of the more carefully
wrought stone pestles terminate at one end
in a knob or a more or less carefully sculp-
tured head of an animal. The best example
of this type known to the writer was found
in the Kennebec Valley, and has a finely
wrought human head at the upper extremity.
These pestles are of various lengths, up to
about 28 inches, and are commonly about 2
to 24 inches in diameter. They are usually made of a variety of
metamorphosed slate, and are generally gray or greenish in color.

Figure 12
Stone pestle, Grave 9.
(1/2.)

Prasopy MusEuM Papers Vou. XI, No. 1, PLatse 4

Burial Place at Winthrop: Blue and white tubular glass beads (at left); tubular
beads of shell, and small discoidal beads of mussel shell, all from Grave 4. (1/1.)

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 15

They were probably used with wooden mortars made by burning a
hole in the end or the side of a section of a tree trunk. There is an
old Indian mortar and pestle from Nantucket in the Peabody Mu-
seum. The mortar is made from a section of an oak tree trunk. It
is about 20 inches high, 9 inches in diameter, and has a cavity about
10 inches deep. This is probably similar to the larger mortars used
in prehistoric times in New England. With such mortars the longer

FIGurE 13

Water-worn stone remotely resembling a small animal, Grave 9. (1/2.)

stone pestles were probably used. It is also probable that long
wooden pestles similar to those still common among the Algon-
quians of the Great Lakes region were used in these mortars. The
pestle that accompanies the old mortar above mentioned is about
30 inches long, and is of wood with the excep-
tion of the lower portion, which consists of a
short piece of an ancient stone pestle fitted to
the wooden handle and bound with an iron
band. The smaller stone pestles were probably
used in wooden mortars of relative size, and
were doubtless for preparing maize foods,
“medicine,” and other substances.
Schoolcraft figures, on plate 21 of the fourth

Fiaure 14
volume of his work, a woman grinding corn. Toy pottery vessel,

Grave 9. (1/2.)
There is an ancient stone pestle, with a head Lay d

at its upper end, suspended by a cord from the limb of a tree
which serves as a spring-pole. A very broad and shallow mortar of
stone is shown below. In connection with this picture are two views
of the stone pestle drawn to a much larger scale. On page 175, un-
der the caption ‘‘ Relics from New Hampshire,” is the following
reference to this illustration:

The mode of pounding maize by suspending a stone pestle from the limb of
a tree as practised by the ancient Pennacooks of the Merrimack Valley in New
Hampshire is represented in plate 21. The pestle is commonly ornamented by

16 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

the head of a man or quadruped, neatly carved from greywacke, or compact
sandstone, the mortar being also of the same material.

This reference has been widely quoted. It seems apparent, how-
ever, that Schoolcraft was describing a stone pestle found in the
habitat of the Pennacook Indians in the Merrimack Valley which
he figures separately, and that his accompanying drawing showing
a woman using this same pestle is wholly ideal. Stone mortars of
Indian origin, such as is shown in this drawing, if they occur at all in
New England, are extremely rare.

Referring previously to the use of the spring-pole in connection
with the mortar and pestle, Schoolcraft says (vol. 111, page 467):

After the introduction of the iron axe consequent on the discovery, stumps
of trees were excavated to serve the purpose of a mortar, a practice which com-

Figure 15

Spoons: the larger is made of sheet-brass, the smaller of sheet-copper,
Grave 10. (1/2.)

mended itself to the early back settlers who improved on the idea by attaching
the wooden pestle to a spring-pole loaded in such a manner as to lift the pestle
from the block with but little effort.

It seems doubtful, therefore, if the spring-pole was used by the
New England Indians in ancient times.

Grave 10. Skeleton of a child two to three years of age, probably
a boy. Near the foot of the grave were fragments of a pottery ves-
sel. Near the extremity of the forearm lay a deposit consisting of
two spoons, the larger made of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet-
copper (figure 15); 5 pendants and a disc having two perforations,
all of sheet-brass (figure 16) ; a terra-cotta pipe (figure 18) ; the rem-
nants of a bag of coiled netting which had evidently contained the
pipe; and what may have been the remains of a second bag, prob-
ably of dressed skin, which perhaps had held the metal spoons.
With these objects were several seeds, resembling those of a variety
of the Cornus, having the ends ground down to the cavity, thus

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS li?

forming a perforation for the purpose of stringing for use as beads.
With the skeleton were also several glass beads, both blue and
white, of the same kind as those shown in plate 4; and the iron
adze blade illustrated in figure 17.

Roger Williams says that ‘“‘generally all the [Indian] men
throughout the country have a tobacco bag with a pipe in it hang-
ing at their back.”’ It was doubtless such a bag which was placed in
this grave. It was of coiled netting (figure 19), a style of fabric used
principally for bags by various tribes of both North and South
America, and also found among the natives of Africa and the Pacific
Islands. The foundation for the mouth of these bags was a cord
over which the first coil of the bag was looped, as indicated in the
drawing. This looped coiling was continued spirally downward, the

Figure 16
Pendants and disc of sheet-brass, Grave 10. (1/2.)

lower portions of the bag being drawn in gradually until the center
of the bottom was reached. The texture is shown more open in the
illustration than in the original, for the purpose of making the tech-
nic clearer. This is the first record of the occurrence of this fabric
among the natives of New England.

So little remains of what appears to be a second bag that it is im-
possible to tell the material of which it was made. It was probably
of dressed skin, however, and was apparently ornamented with
the brass pendants and disc (figure 16); beads made from seeds;
and a double fringe of hair, a section of one layer of which is
shown in figure 20.

The tobacco pipe is of a type evidently fairly common at the be-
ginning of the seventeenth century, and probably also at a much
earlier date. It is of terra-cotta, and of a form occurring among the
eastern Algonquians from Virginia northward, to and including the
southeastern portion of New England. This specimen has its stem

18 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

covered with a piece of sheet-brass, very neatly joined. The ma-
jority of these pipes, however, are without this metal reinforce-
ment. Gosnold in 1602 saw among the Indians in the vicinity of
Buzzards Bay, southern Massachusetts, pipes ‘‘steeled with cop-
per.”’ Brereton’s account is more explicit. He says:

the necks of their pipes are made of clay, hard dried . . . the other part is a
piece of hollow copper very finely closed and cemented together.!

This is a very good description of the pipe from this burial.
There are two other terra-cotta pipes in the Museum from Mas-
sachuset Indian graves in the vicinity of Boston, having bowls also
bound with sheet-brass. It is probable that the stems of both
were originally covered with the same material, for one still retains
a narrow band of brass just below the
bowl, and the lower portion of the
other had evidently been cut down
to fit a tapering metal stem.

Figure 17 During this period, stone tobacco

ane poet pipes with figures of men or beasts

in relief upon them were also in use

by our Indians. This is shown by the accounts of contemporary

writers, and by archeological investigations. The platform pipe,

however, frequently found in this region seems to belong to an
earlier period.

The two spoons found near the bag containing the pipe were
neatly made, the larger of sheet-brass and the smaller of sheet-cop-
per. The concavo-convex form of the bowls may have been pro-
duced by hammering that portion of the unfinished spoon into a
corresponding depression in a block of wood with a round-faced
hammer of some kind, a method followed by our sheet-metal work-
ers in making various objects, up to quite recent times. The edges
of the spoons are ground smooth. If they were originally cut with
heavy shears, or if they were finished with a file, all traces seem to
have been removed by grinding. The edges of the brass pendants
appear to have been finished in the same manner, but the perfora-
tions in the pendants were doubtless produced with an iron punch,
as the bur upon the under side is very marked. The copper basin
found with the first burial described was doubtless shaped by the

1 Brereton, op. cit. p. 88.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 19

same process as were the bowls of the spoons. The metal handles
of the spoons are very short, and it seems reasonable to suppose
that they were originally attached to longer handles of wood. On
the whole, it seems probable that the basin and spoons were made
by Whites who possessed only crude tools, although it is possible
that they were worked out of sheet metal by the Indians.

The occasional finding of tobacco pipes in graves of young chil-
dren is an interesting indication of the affectionate forethought of
the parents for the future comfort and welfare of the departed boy.
It seems to indicate a belief in the continued growth and maturity

Figure 18

Terra-cotta tobacco pipe with stem covered with sheet-brass and
wound with sinew, Grave 10. (2/3.)
of the spirit, for it is hardly probable that these very young chil-
dren were users of tobacco at the time of their death.

Throughout the century following the discovery of Newfound-
land by Cabot in 1497, ships from various nations of Europe visited
the northeastern coast of America, and had more or less communi-
cation with the natives. Verrazano, the Florentine explorer,
reached the eastern coast of America in 1524, and turning north-
ward explored the bays and inlets to about the latitude of eastern
Maine. He gives an accurate account of the Indians of southern
New England, and describes their habitations, dress, canoes, agri-
culture, etc. He writes as follows of the copper found among them:

We saw many plates of wrought copper which they esteem more than gold,
which for the color, they make no account of, for that among all other is ac-
counted the basest. They make most account of azure and red. The things

they esteemed most of all those which we gave them were bells, crystals of
azure color, and other toys to hang at their ears and about their necks.!

This copper must have been obtained from previous explorers of
whom we have no account; for although an occasional implement

1 Relation of John Verrazano, Hakluyt’s Divers Voyages, Hakluyt Society Reprint, p. 65.

20 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

and a few small beads have been found, wrought from native cop-
per, nothing in the way of metal plates or large beads has been re-
covered in New England which was not made of European copper
or brass. It has been suggested that much of the sheet metal was
obtained from wrecked ships. It seems much more probable that it
was acquired in trade with the early fishermen and explorers, many
of whom undoubtedly skirted our New England shores in the six-
teenth century. In 1535, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence. It ap-

v N ) Nh wal i s } 14 I" 1 Wy a

yak AW nil | i

i i |

WAY APN

IW | !

il |

| | ] i

| aN Ins

FicurEe 19 Figure 20
Section of bag of coiled netting, the lower Section of layer of fringe,
enlarged drawing showes the technic more probably a part of bag,
clearly, Grave 10. (1/1.) Grave 10. (1/1.)

pears that the English trade “out of England to Newfound land
was common and frequented”’ as early as 1548.!

In 1578, Anthonie Parkhurst wrote a letter to Richard Hakluyt,
a portion of which is as follows:

Now to answer some part of your letter touching the sundry navies that
come to Newfoundland or Terra nova, for fish: you shal understand that some
fish not neere the other by 200. leagues, and therefore the certaintie is not
knowen; and some yeres come many more than other some, as I see the like
among us: who since my first travell being but 4. yeeres, are increased from 30.
sayle to 50. which commeth to passe chiefly by the imagination of the Westerne
men, who thinke their neighbours have had greater gaines then in very deed
they have, for that they see me to take such paines yeerely to go in proper per-
son: they also suppose that I find some secret commoditie by reason that I doe
search the harbors, creekes and havens, and also the land much more than ever
any Englishman hath done. Surely I am glad that it so increaseth, whereof
soever it springeth. But to let this passe, you shall understand that I am in-
formed that they are above 100. saile of Spaniards that come to take Cod be-
sides 20. or 30. more that come from Biskaie to kill Whale for Traine. These be
better appoynted for shipping and furniture of munition, then any nation say-

1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vit, p. 9.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 21

ing the Englishmen, who commonly are lords of the harbors where they fish,
and do use all strangers helpe in fishing if need require, according to an old cus-
tome of the countrey, which they do willingly, so that you take nothing from
them more then a boat or twaine of salt, in respect of your protection of them
against rovers or other violent intruders, who do often put them from good har-
bor, &c. As touching their tunnage, I thinke it may be neere five or sixe thou-
sand tunne. But of Portugals there are not lightly above 50. saile, whose tun-
nage may amount to three thousand tuns, and not upwarde. Of the French
nation and Britons, are about one hundred and fiftie sailes, the most of their
shipping is very small, not past fortie tunnes, among which some are great and
reasonably well appointed, better then the Portugals, and not so well as the
Spaniards, and the burden of them may be some 7000. tunne. Their shipping is
from all parts of France and Britaine, and the Spaniards from most parts of
Spaine, the Portugals from Aviero and Viana, and from 2. or 3. ports more.
The trade that our nation hath to Island maketh, that the English are not there
in such numbers as other nations.!

From the above we learn that at this date there were evidently
nearly 400 European vessels engaged in taking fish or whales, and
probably a portion of them incidentally trading for furs, in an area
600 miles in diameter in the vicinity of Newfoundland and Cape
Breton. The New England coast was doubtless within this 600
mile area, and there seems to be no reasonable doubt that it was
visited by many of these ships and that there was more or less inter-
course between these vessels and the natives. This seems to be the
most reasonable explanation of the origin of the quantities of cop-
per and brass objects recorded by early writers as in possession of
the Indians of this region, and it doubtless explains their presence in
early proto-historic graves of the tidewater region. It may also ex-
plain the presence of certain unusual forms of porcelain and glass
beads.

In September, 1907, the attention of the writer was called to the
finding of an Indian cemetery on the slope of a hill in Ipswich,
Massachusetts, where the land was being graded. One or two graves
were uncovered, and with the burials were found a terra-cotta pipe
similar to the one illustrated in figure 18, but without the brass
binding on the stem; a bracelet of small beads of sheet-copper
strung alternately with blue glass beads; a necklace of small white
porcelain beads of oval form; and the bronze brazier shown in figure
21. Only a few fragments of bone were recovered.

Obtaining permission, in behalf of the Museum, of the owner of

1 Hakluyt’s Voyages (Glasgow Edition, 1904), vol. vim, pp. 9-11.

22 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

the estate, Mr. F. B. Harrington, investigations were carried on at
the burial place for several days. A few additional graves were
opened, but no artifacts were found. In each of these graves the
skeletons had disintegrated, leaving nothing but a whitish paste in
the damp soil in place of the bones. This, upon drying, turned to
powder. Not a tooth was recovered. The bodies had been interred
in a soil composed largely of clay, which allowed the water to

FIGURE 21
Bronze brazier from an Indian grave at Indian Hill, Ipswich, Massachusetts. (1/3.)

percolate but slowly; consequently the disintegration of the bones
was probably more rapid than it would have been had they been
buried in sand or gravel.

Not being able to determine the provenience of the brazier from
collections in our colonial museums, inquiries were made at the
British Museum, at the Museum at Hull, England, and at the
Museo de Anthropologia, Madrid. No reply has come from
Madrid. From the first institution, the following was received:

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 23

We have two or three bronze (not brass) braziers with a general similarity to
the one of which you enclose a photograph. One has projections rising from
the rim in a similar manner, presumably to support a vessel placed above, but
they have no curves and are not so “spiky.’’ We have no precise data to help
us in dating, but regard our specimens as late 15th or early 16th Century.

From the Hull Museum we received the following:

In reply to your letter of the 5th instant, the object shown on the photograph
seems to bea brazier, is probably late 16th Century in date, and appears to be of
Spanish origin.

If the last identification is correct, the specimen must have been
obtained from a Spanish or Portuguese ship which communicated
with the Massachuset Indians during the latter half of the six-
teenth century.

No exhaustive study has been made of the various types of glass
and porcelain beads which have been recovered from Indian graves
of eastern New England. When this is done it may throw addi-
tional light on the intercourse of the natives with the sixteenth
century fishermen and traders.

Previous to the arrival of the colonists, the most valued articles
obtained from the Whites were probably glass beads, and sheet-cop-
per and brass. There seems to be no evidence that European cloth
was sold to the Indians during this period. After the colonists be-
came established, many well-made brass and copper kettles of vari-
ous sizes and forms were obtained by barter, in addition to sheets of
these metals, which were still in demand. The Indians also were
able to procure European cloth, cast brass spoons, glassware, crock-
ery, etc., and an occasional object of pewter, all of which have been
found in graves dating about 1625 to 1670.

During the latter part of the seventeenth century, however, a
considerable change took place in the burial customs of this section,
especially among the so-called Christianized Indians, and most of
such graves which have been opened contain no artifacts and the
skeletons are usually in a horizontal position.

The long cultivation of the fields of this Commonwealth, the
grading of lands, and the many excavations preliminary to building
houses and roads, have brought to light relatively few Indian
graves as compared with many sections of this country. These
graves have usually been found singly or in small groups, and many

24 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

were without artifacts. Their discovery has usually been under
conditions which did not allow careful investigation by experienced
excavators, therefore it is hoped that the foregoing account will
prove of special value to those interested in the archzology of our
northern Atlantic seaboard.

Knife with antler handle, and blade probably

made from a piece of brass kettle. Found with

an Indian skeleton on Hermon Street, Winthrop,

in 1886. The handle is of a type originally used
for flint blades. (1/2.)

NOTES ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS

» By EARNEST A. HOOTON

These remains from the Winthrop cemetery consist of incom-
plete skeletons of seven adult males, four adult or sub-adult fe-
males, and five infants. Two of the skeletons of males are well
preserved, as is also the skeleton of one female. But none of them
is complete. Several skeletons are represented only by calvariae or
skull fragments.

In connection with the cranial measurements and indices, the
most important morphological features of the various crania are
described. Following this, a brief consideration of the salient char-
acters of the long bones accompanies the table recording their
measurements and indices.

60380, Grave 1. Thisis the skeleton of a young adult male. The
brain case is of good size and very dolichocephalic (71.4). Itis also
hypsicephalic (75.0) and akrocephalic (105.1). The frontal region
is of medium breadth, but low and retreating; the sagittal region
has a very pronounced median elevation; the temporal regions are
flat, with moderate supramastoid crests, and the occipital region
is moderately convex, and has a slight torus.

The serration of the sutures is simple, and obliteration has begun
externally only in the obelion region of the sagittal suture. There
are a few small Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture, and one in
each of the squamous sutures. There is also a very small bone in
the right side of the coronal. The pterions are of the usual medium
H-form, and there are no parietal foramina. One small right re-
tromastoid foramen, and one small and one medium left foramen
were observed. The mastoids are of medium size.

The brow-ridges are large and divided into median and lateral
portions. There is a moderate depression at nasion. The nasal
bridge is narrow, of medium height, and concavo-convex in profile.
The moderately broad nasal aperture shows lower borders of fair
development and a large nasal spine. The orbits are low and
broad, with a medium inclination of their horizontal axes. There

26 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

are no infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow.
Malars and zygomata are very large. Only a slight alveolar prog-
nathism is apparent.

The dentition is complete, but seven of the molars have been
lost in life. The crowns of the teeth are much worn, and the quality
is a little below the average for Indians. The palate is elliptical in
shape and has a medium torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with
well-developed postglenoid processes. The styloids are very large.
The middle lacerate foramina are of medium size, and the depres-
sion of the petrous parts of the temporal bone is about average, as
in typical Europeans. A complete pterygo-spinous foramen occurs
on the right side, and indications of one are found on the left side.
There are no dehiscences in the floor of the auditory meatus. The
muscular impressions on the skull are well marked.

The mandible is large, with a well-developed chin eminence,
stout ascending rami, and everted gonial angles. The mylo-hyoid
ridge and genial tubercles are well developed.

This is a typical Eastern Indian dolichocephal. The facial index
is mesoprosopic, and the gnathic index shows no prognathism. The
orbits are chamaeconch, the nose is leptorrhine, the palatal index
is brachyuranic, and the capacity (1480 cc.) is above average for
Indians.

60388, Grave 8. This is the skeleton of a middle-aged adult
male. The frontal region is low and retreating, but broad. The
sagittal region has a slight elevation and the breadth is narrow. A
slight postcoronoid depression is noticeable. The temporal region
is flat, with a small supramastoid ridge. The occipital region is of
medium convexity, with traces of a torus. The serration of the
sutures 1s simple. Obliteration is far advanced in the sagittal
suture, the external thirds of the coronal suture are closed, and
obliteration is beginning in the lambdoid. There is one medium
Wormian bone in the lambdoid suture. The pterions are of a
medium H-form. There is one small parietal foramen on the right
side and one medium on the left. On the left side there are one
medium and two small retromastoid foramina, and on the right side
one medium and three small. The mastoids are large. The brow-
ridges are prominent and divided into medium and lateral por-
tions. There isa small depression at nasion, and the nasal bridge is
of medium height and breadth. In profile it is concavo-convex.

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 27

The nasal aperture is broad, with a moderate development of the
lower borders and the nasal spine. The orbits are low and oblong
in shape, with the horizontal axes slightly inclined. There are no
infraorbital sutures, and the suborbital fossae are shallow. The
malars and zygomata are large, but alveolar prognathism is slight.

The dentition is complete, and the teeth are moderately worn and
of fair quality. Several abscesses, caries, and traces of pyorrhoea
are evident. The number of cusps of the molar teeth cannot be
counted, nor is it possible to ascertain the presence or absence of
shovel incisors. The palate is parabolic in shape, with a moderate
torus. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and show a medium
postglenoid process. The styloids are small. The middle lacerate
foramina are large, and the depression of the petrous portions of
the temporal bones is about the average for Europeans. The pos-
terior lacerate and postcondyloid foramina are ordinary. The
foramen magnum is hexagonal. Partially formed pterygo-spinous
foramina are present.

The mandible is large, with a well-developed mental process.
The mylo-hyoid ridge is submedium in development, but the genial
tubercles are average. Slight traces of a mandibular torus may be
noticed.

60379, Unearthed by workmen. The calvaria is that of a middle-
aged male. The frontal breadth is very narrow, and the maximum
breadth occurs at the level of the parietal tuberosities. The skull
is high, short, and of rather small breadth. It is subbrachycephalic
(78.09), and appears to be the result of the admixture of a dolicho-
cephalic element with a brachycephalic element.

The frontal region is of medium height, but narrow and very re-
ceding. In the sagittal region there is a slight median elevation and
a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal region is protube-
rant, with a slight supramastoid crest. The occiput shows a moder-
ate convexity.

The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is about
one-half obliterated, and occlusion has begun in the coronal. The
lambdoid suture is open. There is an apex bone in this suture and a
small Wormian bone in the right squamous suture. The pterions
are of the usual H-form. One small parietal foramen occurs on the
right side, and two medium retromastoid foramina on the left side.
The mastoids are of medium size. The brow-ridges are moderately

28 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

developed and confined to the medial portions of the orbits. The
facial portion is missing.

The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and there are no post-
glenoid processes. The base of the skull shows no unusual features.
There is a medium sized dehiscence in the floor of the left auditory
meatus. The mandible is of medium development and size, except
that the mylo-hyoid ridges and genial tubercles are poorly marked.

45651, Unearthed by workmen. This is the partially mummified
skull of a young adult male subject. The scalp, hair, and integu-
ment are preserved on the right half of the cranium. This condi-
tion is probably due to the fact that the skull was covered with a
brass vessel, for the mummified tissues and the adjacent bony parts
show green copper stains. The skull is subbrachycephalic (79.35),
hypsicephalic (81.52), and akrocephalic (102.74).

The frontal region of the skull is medium in height, breadth, and
slope. The sagittal region shows a slight median elevation. The
temporal regions are rather flat. The occipital region is steep, with
traces of a torus. The sutures are simple, and obliteration has be-
gun dorsally in the pterion regions. The half of the skull uncovered
shows no Wormian bones. ‘The left side shows one large, one
medium, and one small retromastoid foramen, and the mastoid
process is of medium size.

The brow-ridges are limited to the median halves of the supraor-
bital region and show average development. The nasion depression
is slight. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo-
convex in profile. The nasal aperture is broad, with indistinct
lower borders and a small spine. There are traces of subnasal
grooves. The orbits are oblong, with no inclination of their hori-
zontal axes. On the left side an infraorbital suture is about one-half
complete. The suborbital fossae are medium; the malars and
zygomata are large. Alveolar prognathism is very slight.

The dentition is complete, and the wear of the teeth is slight. The
teeth are of good quality. The cusps of the upper molars show a
4-3-3 formula, and the lower molars 5-4—?. The third molars are
much reduced in size. Traces of shovel incisors may be observed.
Observations and measurements on the palate and teeth are in-
complete, because the mandible cannot be disarticulated without
destroying the mummified tissues. The palate is parabolic, with a
slight torus. The glenoid fossae are deep, with marked postglenoid

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 29

processes. The styloids are rudimentary. The other features of the
skull base, so far as observable, are ordinary. Incomplete pterygo-
spinous foramina are present.

The mandible is large, with a prominent chin, and a medium de-
velopment of other morphological features.

The hair preserved is straight and black, but rather fine in qual-
ity. The interior of the skull still contains the dried mass of the
brain tissues.

60377, Unearthed by workmen. Fragmentary calvaria of a mid-
dle-aged male. The length-breadth index is subdolichocepha-
lic (75.81). The frontal region is of medium breadth, but low and
retreating. The sagittal region has a slight median elevation. The
temporal region is moderately convex, as is also the occipital
region. The sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture is
half obliterated, and, in the coronal, obliteration has begun in the
lateral portions. The lambdoid suture also shows beginnings of ex-
ternal obliteration. There are no Wormian bones. Two very small
parietal foramina are found on the right side, and there are one
small right and two small left retromastoid foramina. The mas-
toids are of medium size, but the brow-ridges are small and divided
into medial and lateral portions. Thefacial portion is fragmentary.
The nasal aperture is broad. It has no lower borders; the nasal
floor slopes off into an alveolar clivus without definite transition.
The nasal spine is rudimentary. The orbits are oblong, low, and
horizontal. There are no infraorbital sutures. The suborbital
fossae are shallow. There is a moderate degree of alveolar progna-
thism.

The dentition is complete and the crowns of the teeth are mark-
edly worn. Three molars have been lost in life, and there are traces
of five alveolar abscesses, but the general quality of the teeth is
good. The cusps cannot be counted. Evidently the third molars
are much reduced in size. The palate is of the usual parabolic
shape. The base of the skull shows a medium development in all
features.

The mandible is large and heavy, with thick everted gonial
angles and extensive attachments of masticatory muscles. The
mental prominence is submedium in development. Other features
are ordinary.

60383, Grave 4, Eastern skeleton.

INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

Skeleton of a middle-aged
male. The skull is fragmentary, but seems to have been about 192
mm. long and approximately 140 mm. broad. It was, then, pro-
nouncedly dolichocephalic. The frontal region of the calvaria is

MEASUREMENTS OF CRANIA

Deformations eee
Glabello-Occipital length .
Maximum breadth .......
Basion-Bregma height
Min. Frontal diameter ...
Total Facial height ......
Upper Facial height ......
Bizygomatic diameter ....
Bigonial diameter ........
Height of Symphysis .....
Bicondylar width ........
Min. breadth of Ascending
RGIS eli in se oe ae
Height Ascending Ramus .
Condylc-Symphysea! length
Height of Orbits: right ...

Breadth of Orbits: right...
letteeer,

INasalcheig htme: a eee a
Nasalibreadth a. nee
Basion=Alveon! 0% 0o.tae a5
Basion-Nasion :2.4+....
Palate: External length ..
External breadth .
Maximum circumference .

(above brow-ridges)

Arc: Nasion-Opisthion....
Ave Transverse cies eicr
Foramen magnum: length
breadth

Thickness of Left Parietal
(above squamous suture)
Capacit yeu cir eee:

60388
Male
mid.

60379
Male
mid.

45651
Male
y. ad.

184
146
(150)

(98)

(117)
70
140
107
35

60377
Male
mid.

(186)
141

60384 | 56669
Female |Female
sub.ad. | y. ad.

167 169

133 133
142 137
85 91
110 v4
68 71
(124) ?
97 ?
33 2
113 ?
37 2
50 2
100 ?
31 ?
31 36
38 2
36.5 38
51 50
24 25
98 101
103 102
53 53
64 59
476 485
351 345
301 298
33 39
30 32
3 3.6
1310 1280

60378
Female
mid.

oi i i i ee Cr)

505

370
312
35
35
5.3

1410

rather low, but of medium breadth and slope. The sagittal region
has a slight median elevation. The temporal regions are flat, and
the occipital region is protuberant, with a well-marked inion. The
sutures are simple in serration. The sagittal suture shows oblitera-
tion beginning dorsally, and the lambdoid suture shows considera-

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS ol

ble ventral occlusion. There are a few small Wormian bones in the
lambdoid suture. There are no parietal foramina, and the mastoid
processes are rather small. The brow-ridges are of medium size and
divided into median and lateral portions. The facial portion is de-
tached and fragmentary. On the right side is a complete infraorbi-
tal suture. The malars are large, but the zygomata show only
medium development. The dentition is complete and moderately
worn. The teeth are of fair quality, showing a few caries and traces
of several alveolar abscesses. The cusp formula of the lower molars
is 5-5-4. The mandible is large, with a prominent mental process,

CRANIAL INDICES

Catalogue number ...:...| 60380 | 60388 | 60379 | 45651 | 60377 | 60384 | 56669 | 60378
SORE ena ett sci B, e Male | Male | Male | Male | Male |Female |Female |Female
Length—Breadth ......... 71.35| 72.19] 78.09 | 79.35 | (75.81)| 79.64] 78.70] 78.65
Height-Length .......... COOKE TAO) Ci2da SOl.On = 2 85.03} 81.07] 76.40
Height-—Breadth ......... 105.11) 103.70} 99.28} 102.74] ? 106.76 | 108.01| 97.14
CramoleNModulemses... «2. 157.6 | 154.00) 151.6 | 160.0 ? TAiveomeleOromnlodes
Ota aeial ee cer oe ck 85.71| 89.19 de toa | Ks 88.71 ? Rg
Wpper Baecial’. os si... es 53.74 | 51.35 i OOOO? 54.84 ? ?
Repro GAG aries: cts so aoe eee. 93.69)) | 91.23 ? 96.26; ? 95.15| 99.02 %
@Mrprraiserte tice. cj. oh. s 78.89 | 78.26 ? ? ? 81.58 ? ?
teint wer trs ee aie t 78.89| 78.26 ? (4236 |e Or 84.93} 97.74 ?
IN iced ig bras ley = Seer eee 44.83) 51.92 ? HO, OAN ar 47.06} 50.00 2
Palato-Maxillary ........ 120.69 | 118.03 a ? 117.24) 120.75) 111.382 Y

a well-marked mylo-hyoid ridge, but small genial tubercles. The
ganial angles are everted.

60387, Grave 5. These are fragments of the skull of a middle-
aged male. The teeth are well worn. The palate shows a well-de-
veloped torus. The fragmentary mandible was large, with promi-
nent mental process and strongly everted gonial angles. The
mylo-hyoid ridge and genial tubercles are poorly developed. The
fragments show strong muscular attachments. No measurements
could be taken, nor were sufficient portions preserved to permit
repair of the skull.

60384, Grave 4, Western skeleton. Skeleton of a sub-adult female
about eighteen years of age.

The skull is in a good state of preservation. The frontal region is
narrow and of medium height and slope. There is a slight median
frontal crest. The sagittal region is moderately arched, with a

o2 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

slight postcoronoid depression. The skull is rather narrow. It is
subbrachycephalic (69.64), hypsicephalic (85.03), and akrocephalic
(106.76). The temporal region is rather flat, and the occipital curve
is steep. The sutures are of a simple pattern and have remained
open. There are no Wormian bones. The pterions are a narrow H in
shape, and there is but one small left parietal foramen. One medium
retromastoid foramen is found on each side, and the mastoid
processes are small.

The brow-ridges are undeveloped, and there is no nasion depres-
sion. The nasal bridge is low, of medium breadth, and concavo-
convex. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with dull lower
borders and a small spine. The orbits are oblong and horizontal,
and there are no infraorbital sutures. Suborbital fossae are shal-
low, malars of medium size, and zygomata small. There is a moder-
ate alveolar prognathism. The dentition is complete, the teeth of
excellent quality and but slightly worn. The molar cusp formula is
-s,- Shovel-shaped incisors are present. There is but one caries,
and one alveolar abscess. On account of reduction and rotation of
the third molars, the palate is elliptical in shape, with a slight torus.
The glenoid fossae are of medium depth, with traces of the post-
glenoid tubercle. The styloids are undeveloped. The middle lacer-
ate foramina are small, but the petrous parts show a moderate de-
pression. The posterior lacerate foramina are large. There are no
other features of the skull base of particular note, except that post-
condyloid foramina are absent and there are no dehiscences in the
floor of the auditory meatus. The mandible is of medium size, but
with a rather low and broad ascending ramus and a shallow sigmoid
notch.

60381, Grave 2. Fragmentary skull of a young adult female. Al-
though measurements cannot be taken, the subject was certainly
dolichocephalic. The frontal region shows medium height, breadth,
and slope. The calvaria is narrow in the sagittal region and shows
a slight postcoronoid depression. The temporal regions are flat and
the occiput is protuberant. The sutures are simple in pattern and
obliteration has not begun. There are no Wormian bones, no parie-
tal or retromastoid foramina. The pterions are of the usual H-form.
The mastoid processes are small. There is a medium development
of the supraorbital ridges, which are divided into median and lat-
eral portions. No depression occurs at nasion. The nasal bridge is

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS 33

broken away. The nasal aperture is of medium breadth, with sharp
lower borders and a medium-sized spine. Traces of subnasal
grooves were noticed. The orbits approximate to a square form and
show slight inclination of their horizontal axes. Malars and zy-
gomata are broken. There seems to have been a moderate degree of
alveolar protrusion.

The dentition is complete, and the teeth are but slightly worn.
The quality is fair. The dental cusp formula for molars is 555.
There are no shovel-shaped incisors. Four alveolar abscesses have
left their traces in the dental arch. The palate is parabolic, with a
high roof. The glenoid fossae are of medium depth and have no
postglenoid processes. Styloids are undeveloped. The skull base is
fragmentary, and the vault has suffered considerable post-mortem
deformation. The mandible is of medium size and shows poor de-
velopment of the mylo-hyoid ridge and the genial tubercles.

56669, Unearthed by workmen. ‘This is the calvarium of a young
adult female. Its description is very similar to that of No. 60384.
It is also subbrachycephalic (78.70), hypsicephalic (81.07), and
akrocephalic (103.01). In features of the skull vault it is almost
identical with the previously described female skull. The orbits,
however, are high and rounded; the suborbital fossae are pro-
nounced and there is marked alveolar prognathism. Most of the
teeth have dropped out, but it is evident that the dentition was
complete and that the third molars were much reduced. ‘Traces
of one alveolar abscess were noted. The palate is parabolic. The
base of the skull presents the usual low relief found in the crania of
female Indians. There is no accompanying mandible.

60378, Unearthed by workmen. Skeleton of a middle-aged female.
The facial portion of the skull is broken away and the mandible is
fragmentary. The calvaria is subbrachycephalic (78.65), hypsi-
cephalic (76.40), and metriocephalic (97.14). It is of good size
and capacity (1410 cc.). The morphological features are those
of an average Indian female, with points of sex distinction well
marked.

60385, Grave 4. These are the bones of the ‘‘child nearest the
mother.” Since the milk dentition is complete the child must have
been twenty months to three years of age.

60386, Grave 4. These are the bones of the “‘infant by the side
of the other child.” In this case also the milk dentition is complete.

o4 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

The child was then within the limits of age stated in the case of the
preceding subject.

60383, Grave 3. Bones of an infant. The first milk molar is
erupted but the second is unerupted. The age of the infant was
then twelve to twenty-one months.

60382, Grave 10. Bones of a child. The first lower milk molar
has erupted, the lower canine is almost erupted, and the second
milk molar is unerupted. The age of the child at death was prob-
ably between sixteen and twenty-four months. The orbits of this
child show somewhat dubious traces of symmetrical osteoporosis.
This is a nutritional disease of obscure nature, especially common
in crania of Peruvian and Central American Indians. The writer
has seen it in ancient Indian crania from the Southwest; but has
never before observed it in crania of Eastern Indians.

60389, Grave 9. Skeleton of a child. The milk dentition is
complete and shows a certain amount of wear. The child was aged
three to five years. Here again the left orbit shows signs of an
osteoporitic condition.

Lone BONES

The femora of this series display ordinary Indian characteristics
and do not merit individual descriptions. The middle shaft section
is usually prismatic, the linea aspera is well developed, and there is
a marked pilastter. Curvature is medium. Some form of a third
trochanter is generally present. Platymeria is pronounced. Tor-
sion of the femoral head is medium to pronounced.

The tibiae have strongly retroverted heads. The externa! tibial
condyle is usually more or less convex. Platycnemia is marked.
The shaft form is usually a lateral prism. ‘‘Squatting facets” on
the anterior lip of the inferior articular surface are usual.

The other long bones present no features of special interest.

The long bones of three male skeletons and three female skeletons
were sufficiently preserved to permit their utilization for the cal-
culation of stature. For this purpose the well-known formulae of
Pearson have been utilized.!

The tibio-femoral index in this group, as in many other Indian
groups, is extremely high. Stature calculated on the tibiae, conse-

1 Pearson, Karl, On the Reconstruction of the Stature of Prehistoric Races, Philosophical
Trans. 192, A, 1899, p. 196.

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36 INDIAN BURIAL PLACE

quently, is somewhat higher than when calculated from the lengths
of other long bones. In the present instance, formulae utilizing the
lengths of both femur and tibia have been utilized, or, when neces-
sary, the mean stature has been deduced from the results arrived at
by using formulae for separate bones.

No. 60380, an extremely dolichocephalic male, must have had a
stature in life of about 171.5 cm. On the basis of femora the stature
of this subject is 168.5, but the tibia yields a stature of 174.4 cm.

No. 60388, another dolichocephalic male, was about 174.3 cm.
tall. Here again the tibia yields too high a stature (175.1 em.). No.
60377, a mesocephalic male, had a much lower stature, only 163.6
em., reckoned on the basis of the femur. The tibiae are missing. If
these had been present the estimate of stature would have been
raised to about 165 cm.

No. 60384, a sub-adult female, had a stature of about 157.5 cm.
No. 60378, a rather large female, had a stature of about 161.8 cm.
No. 60381, a young adult female, was about 158 cm. in stature.

Pelvis. The pelves show the usual marks of sex differentiation.
With the exception of that of No. 60378, they were too fragmentary
for the taking of measurements.

MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES OF PELvis oF No. 60378, FEMALE

mm. mm.
Pelvis as a whole Ossa Innominata
Breadth Maximum ... 257 Height
Superior Strait right .. .... casera 200
Breadth Maximum .- 124 left: 2.5.3 eee 201
Sagittal diameter ... 115 Breadth
Distance between right’... 6. ae ee 148
Ischiatic Spines ...... (95) left: ..3'o. dee ?
Height of Sacrum ....... 106 Sacral Index 33 eee 116.03
Breadth of Sacrum ..... 123 Index of Right
Pelyioz indexers tee eee 78.— Innominate Bone ...... 74.—
Brim ndext wt eer 92.74

The brim index of this pelvis is so high that one might judge it to
be that of a male, were it not for the morphological features, which
are clearly female. The ischiatic notch is broad; the preauricular
sulcus is well marked; the subpubic angle is large; and the ascend-
ing ramus of the ischium and the symphysis pubis are characteris-

AT WINTHROP, MASSACHUSETTS Oo”

tically female. The condition of the pubic symphysis indicates the
ninth phase of Todd’s age gradations.

Vertebrae. In general the vertebrae of these skeletons present
no features of special interest. Marginal exostoses occur on the
vertebrae of No. 60377, a middle-aged male. In the case of 60383,
another middle-aged male, the vertebrae seem to be carious. One
suspects tuberculosis, but it is scarcely safe to attempt a definite
diagnosis.

SUMMARY

In addition to the usual tall dolichocephalic type of Eastern
Indian there is present in this series a mesocephalic type due to
admixture of a short brachycephalic stock. The evidence of this
admixture is to be seen in the shortening of the skull, the increase of
breadth across the posterior portions of the parietals, increase of
the skull height, shorter face, and broader, lower nose. The meas-
urements of some of the mesocephals and subbrachycephals are
such as to make one suspect some occipital deformation. This,
however, is not apparent from the contours of the occipital bones.
In the short series from Winthrop this mixed type actually pre-
dominates.

PAPERS

OF THE

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Vou. XI, No. 2

OFFICIAL REPORTS

ON THE TOWNS OF

TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN
TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA
TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP Il, AND THE COUNCIL
OF THE INDIES, IN 1580

TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES

ZELIA NUTTALL

TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1926

KRAUS REPRINT CO.
Millwood, New York
1974

PAPERS

OF THE

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Vou. XI, No. 2

OFFICIAL REPORTS

ON THE TOWNS OF

TEQUIZISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND SAN JUAN
TEOTIHUACAN SENT BY FRANCISCO DE CASTANEDA
TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II, AND THE COUNCIL
OF THE INDIES, IN 1580

TRANSLATED AND EDITED, WITH AN
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES

ZELIA NUTTALL

TWO PLATES AND TWO TEXT FIGURES

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1926

KRAUS REPRINT CO.
Millwood, New York
1974

AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher
KRAUS REPRINT CO.

A USS. Division of Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited

Printed in U.S.A.

NOTE

THE remarkable acumen of the Spanish authorities in send-
ing out a questionnaire to many of the settlements through-
out the Spanish domain in America is amply justified by the
wealth of material collected by this means. The replies to
this list of questions returned by the various towns are all
important but special interest centers on that sent by San
Juan Teotihuacan on account of the famous ruins at that
site.

Mrs. Nuttall early discovered the great importance of this
manuscript and has kindly translated it for the present
paper.

The Museum is greatly indebted to Clarence L. Hay,
Esqr., for its publication.

CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Director.

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS,
February 8, 1926.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

_Puate 1. Map or TEQuIzISTLAN, TEPECHPAN, ACOLMAN, AND
SAN JUAN TEOTIHUACAN

Puate 2. A Part or THE Map By ALONSO DE SANTA CRUz (circa
1570)

FIGURES

ieee LACE-NAMES OF TExXCOCO.....0 sos sles eee ew, 49

ee Pr cone AME OF ACOLMAN ..... .. ... . 64

wren) Syal} atuah zo o@vol fee eee
ae 3

!
4 »

wa TUES

INTRODUCTION

In 1900, Sefior Don Pedro Torres Lanzas, the distinguished Direc-
tor of the Archivo de Indias in Seville, in Volume I of his valuable
Inventory of the Plans and Maps contained in the Archives,
published the title of the *‘ Map of the towns of Acolman, San Juan
Teotihuacan, Tequizistlan and adjoining towns by the Corregidor
Don Francisco de Castafieda, accompanied by a descriptive
Relacién [dated 1580], of each of said towns, made in compliance
with His Majesty’s Instructions.” !

Separated from its Relacién for years, the Map was, and still
may be, exhibited in one of the treasure filled show-cases of the
Archivo. It thus came about that, in 1911, on registering the
contents of a ‘“‘Legajo”’ attractively labelled ‘‘Indiferente Gen-
eral,’ I came across the Relacién by mere chance, and after read-
ing it with intense interest, copied it forthwith, as a document of
utmost importance that should be generally known.

I had not seen the Torres Lanzas Inventory and was unaware
at the time that, in 1905, Sefior Francisco del Paso y Troncoso had
actually published the Relacién with the Map, in Volume VI of
his “‘Papeles de Nueva Espajia,” etc.;? for this, like others of his
important and valuable publications, was and is, unfortunately,
practically unobtainable and inaccessible to students.

In the monumental work on the ‘‘ Population of the Valley of
Teotihuacan,”’ recently issued by Sefior Manuel Gamio,’? the Map
is reproduced, but the Relacién, while referred to, is not described

1 See ‘‘ Relacion descriptiva de los Mapas, planos, etc., de Mexico y Floridas existentes en
el Archivo General de Indias, por Pedro Torres Lanzas.” Sevilla, 1900. Tomol, p. 26. This
document is registered in the Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, as follows: Indiferente Gen-
-eral — Descripciones poblaciones y derroteras de viajes. Nueva Espafia. Afios 1521-1818.
Estante 145 — Cajén 7 — Legajo 6.

The text of the questionnaire is translated from the ‘‘ Memoria”’ published in “‘ Relaciones
de Yucatdn.’”’ Coleccién de Documentos Inéditos . . . publicada por la Real Academia de
la Historia, Segunda Serie, Tomo XI.

2 ‘*Papeles de Nueva Espaiia publicados de orden y con fondos del Gobierno Mexicana,
Segunda Serie. Geografia y Estadistica. Tomo VI. Relaciones Geogrdficas de la Diocesis de
Mexico. Manuscritos dela Real Academia de la Historia de Madrid y del Archivo de Indias en
Sevilla. Afios 1579-1582.”” Madrid, 1905. Text, pp. 209-230.

3 ‘La Poblacién del Valle de Teotihuacan.” Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento. Direc-

cién de Antropologia. Mexico, 1922.
45

46 OFFICIAL REPORTS

as a source of invaluable and authentic information, nor is it de-
servedly utilized and recorded. |

It therefore seems opportune that a publication be made, in
English, and in extenso, of the Relacién, for the benefit of Ameri-
canists. This document is one of the many that were drawn up
and sent from Mexico to Spain in obedience to a remarkable decree,
dated May 25, 1577, issued by King Philip II and distributed
broadcast throughout his New World possessions. This decree
reads:

‘Instructions and memorandum for the drawing up of the re-
ports which are to be made for the ‘ Description of the Indies’ His
Majesty is having made, to facilitate the good government and
ennoblement of the same.

‘Firstly: The governors, corregidors, or mayors to whom the
Viceroys or Audiences or other government officials and adminis-
trators send these printed instructions and memorandum are first
of all to make a list and memorial of the towns inhabited by
Spaniards or by Indians within their jurisdictions, in which only
the names of these towns are to be entered, written clearly and
legibly. This is to be immediately sent to said government offi-
cials so that it can be returned to His Majesty and the Council of
the Indies jointly with the reports drawn up in each town.

“Said printed instructions and memorandum are to be dis-
tributed throughout all towns of Spaniards and Indians in each
jurisdiction in which there are Spaniards, sending them to the
Councils, or, if these are lacking, to the parish priests or to the
monks in charge of religious instruction, with direct orders to
the councils or a recommendation from His Majesty to the priests
and monks, that within a short time they answer and fulfil their
obligations.

“The reports made are to be sent to the above officials, with
the printed instructions, so that, as they go on receiving them they
can redistribute them to other towns to which none have been
previously sent.

‘““In the towns and cities where the governors or mayors or
other officials reside, these are either to write the reports accord-
ing to the instructions, or to have this done by persons with a
knowledge of the affairs of the country. The persons charged
with the drawing up of the report of each town are to give answers.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 47

to the questions in the memorandum and observe the following
order and form.

“Firstly: On a separate sheet, as a superscription to their re-
port, they are to write the.day, month and year dates, with the
_ name of the person or persons who participated in making it; also
, the name of the governor or other person who sent them the said
instructions.

“‘ After carefully reading each paragraph of the memorandum,
they are to write down separately what they have to say, answer-
ing each one of the questions it contains, one after the other.
Those questions to which they have nothing to answer are to be
omitted without comment, passing on to those that follow, until
all are read. The answers given are to be short and clear. What
is certain is to be given as such, what is not is to be recorded as
doubtful, so that the reports may be exact and in strict conformity
to the instructions and memorandum.”

The latter consists of a series of most carefully formulated,
penetrating and comprehensive inquiries, and constitutes a
‘‘questionnaire”’ so remarkable for its acumen that I have adopted
the plan of presenting the questions in the order established by the
royal questionnaire and, after each one, in succession, the answers
to it sent in from the four towns. |

The combined evidence is thus presented in a concentrated and
more interesting form, that will facilitate the survey and study
of the fresh data presented concerning one of the most important
archaeological regions in America.

The Relacién was supplemented by the interesting map that is -
reproduced as Plate 1. The reproduction in Plate 2 is from a
photograph of the same district containing the four towns, as
represented in the famous map of Mexico and its surroundings
made by the cosmographer of King Philip II, Alonso de Santa
Cruz, about 1570.

As the main purpose of this publication is that of placing the
valuable record within the reach of students, I have confined my-
self in my notes to drawing attention to certain important points
and elucidating a few statements that are obscure or misleading.

Descriptions of the towns of Tequizistlan, Tepechpan, Acolman,
and San Juan Teotihuacan, and their dependencies, were composed
by the illustrious Sefior Francisco de Castafieda, the Corregidor of

48 OFFICIAL REPORTS

said towns, for His Majesty, in obedience to the royal instructions
transmitted to him by the illustrious Sefior Gordian Cassasano,
accountant and administrator of the Royal Revenue of this New
Spain.

The description of each town is signed by those persons present
who could sign.

A list of said towns and those subordinate to them accompanies
each description.

The towns included in the circuit and jurisdiction of Tequizistlan
are as follows:

Firstly: Tequizistlan, chief town, with its subordinates Totol-
zingo and Acaltecoya.

Secondly: Tepechpan, chief town, with its subordinates San
Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santiago Saqualuca, Santa Ana Tlachahualco,
San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo Teopancalca, San Pedro
Tulamiguacan, San Xriptoual Culhuacazingo, Santa Maria Maquix-
co, Sant Jhoan Tlacaleco, San Bartolome Atocpan, San Xeronimo
Chiapa, Santa Maria Suchitepec, its subordinates, and San Juan
Cuyoa.

Thirdly: Acolman, the capital, with its subordinates Santiago
Atla, San Miguel Jumetla, San Agustin Tonala, los Tres Reyes
Yzquitlan, Santa Maria Chiapa, San Matheo Tuchatlauco, San
Lucas Tlamazingo, San Juan Tepehuizco, Santiago Nopaltepec,
San Juan Tlaxinea, San Martin Huiznahuac, San Felipe Sacatepec,
San Tomas Atlauco, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santa Maria
Atenpa, San Marcos Quacyocan, San Pedro Tepetitlan, San Antonio
* Huiztonco, Santa Maria Tlatecpa, San Bartolome Quauhtla-
pecco, San Juan Chicnahuatecapa, San Martin Aticpac, San
Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa Maria Astatonacazco, Santa Maria
Atenpa, Santa Maria Saguala, and San Juan Atlatongo.

Fourthly: San Juan Teotihuacan, with its subordinates San
Lorenco Atezcapa, San Miguel Tlotezcac, San Matheo Tenango,
San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa Maria Coatlan, San Francisco
Magatlan, San Martin Teacal, San Pedro Tlaxican, Santiago Tol-
man, Sant Andres Oztocpachocan, Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio
Tlaxomolco, San Agustin Ohuayocan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San
Miguel Tlaguac, San Luis Xiuhquemecan and Juan Tlaylotlacan.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 49

THE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS THERETO

QUESTION I

In the towns with Spanish inhabitants the name of the district
or province is to be stated, also the meaning of the name and the
reason it is so named.

TEQUIZISTLAN

The town of Tequizistlan is the capital of the jurisdiction. It
is in the district of Texcoco, and was in ancient times an indepen-
dent town that rendered allegiance to its natural lords until Neza-

FR ?
a b 3 Cc

Ficure 1. PLAck-NAMES OF TExcoco.

hualcoyotzin, lord of Texcoco, became an ally and confederate of
Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and with tyranny subjugated said
district, incorporating it into Texcoco:and Mexico. The natives
were unable to explain the meaning of the name Texcoco.!

1 Evidence that the primitive town of Texcoco, like the residence and hill garden of Neza-
hualcoyotl, was situated in or among the rocky foot-hills is furnished by the hieroglyph of the
town, of which several variants are recorded in the native picture-writings and are retained in
the arms of the town granted by Philip II and still in use.

Its main element is a rocky hill, ‘‘ Texcalli,” that conveys the first syllable of the name. In
the ‘‘ Code en Croix’’ of the Aubin-Goupil Collection, the rocky nature of the hill is graphically
rendered and this is surmounted by an earthen pot with two handles (a Comitl) that conveys
the syllable ‘‘co’’ —an affix that signifies ‘‘in’’ (Fig. 1,a).

In the Codex Mendoza, the hill is ingeniously formed by three signs for ‘‘ Tet] ,’’ stone, form-
ing three peaks, between which — “‘co,’’ = in — are two conventionalized drawings of a popular
medicinal rock-plant (a Senecio), either of the names of which, ‘‘ Texcotli’”’ or ‘Texcapatli,”
conveys the first two syllables of the name, while “ Tetl’’ acts as a determinative (Fig. 1,5).

A third variant occurs in the ‘‘ Histoire de la Nation Chichiméque”’ (Catalogue Raisonné de
la Collection Goupil, E. Boban. Atlas. Planches 2 and 3), where, in a conical hill (covered with
a design consisting of diagonals and dots), the pot ‘‘Comitl”’ is figured above the sign for stone,
“Tetl.’? In this case two duplications of sound occur, that is: ‘‘ Texcalli” or hill, and ‘‘ Tetl”’ or
stone. The duplication of ‘‘co’’ was obtained by placing the ‘‘Comitl’’ in (co) the hill (Fig.
1,c). Of the three examples given, this is the only one in which the vowel ‘‘co”’ is duplicated
and the full name ““Texcoco”’ is conveyed. Inthe others, it was evidently considered sufficient
to record ‘‘Texco”’ only.

For the etymology of the names of the other towns dealt with in this document, see the
answers to Question XIII farther on. "

50 OFFICIAL REPORTS

TEPECHPAN

The town of Tepechpan and its dependencies are held by
Geronimo de Baessa, citizen of Mexico City. It is in the province
of ‘Texcoco and was an independent town until Nezahualcoyotzin,
lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over it and made it a subject of Texcoco.

ACOLMAN

Acolman is in the district of Texcoco and was an independent
town where the Chichimecs had their metropolis until Nezahual-
coyotzin, lord of Texcoco, tyrannized over them, as will be told
farther on.

TEOTIHUACAN

The town of San Juan is in the district of Texcoco. In ancient
times it was the capital of a province because the surrounding towns,
which were Otumba, Tepeapulco, Tlaquilpa and others, acknow]l-
edged it as such in heathen times, until .Nezahualcoyotzin, lord
of Texcoco, conquered them in war and tyrannized over them. +

QUESTION II

Who was the discoverer and conqueror of said province and by
whose order or mandate was it discovered? Give the year of its
discovery and conquest and all that can be readily learnt about it.

TEQUIZISTLAN

As it is publicly known that it was Don Hernan Cortés, the Ma:-
ques del Valle, who discovered New Spain in 1519, reference is here
made to the description which will be written in the City of Mexico.

TEPECHPAN

The discovery of said town in New Spain was made in 1519 by
the Marques del Valle, Hernan Cortés, as is referred to in the
description of the town of Tequizistlan.

1 The important facts established by the above answers to Question I are that Tequizistlan
and Tepechpan were ‘‘independent towns,” that Acolman was ‘‘the Chichimec metropolis,”
and that Teotihuacan was ‘‘the capital of a province’’ until all four towns were conquered by
the allied lords of Mexico and Texcoco. The date of this conquest, etc., will be given in the
note pertaining to the answers given to Question XIV.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 51

ACOLMAN

As is publicly known, the discoverer of this town and of New
Spain was Hernan Cortés, the Marques del Valle. The order
and mandate and the year of its discovery are not set down here
because in the description to be made in the City of Mexico these
will be stated by the person in charge.

TEOTIHUACAN

The Marques del Valle was the discoverer of this land.

QUESTION III

State in general the climate and quality of said province or dis-
trict; whether it is cold or hot, dry or damp, with much water or
little and at what season there is more or less; and the prevailing
winds, whether violent and from what quarter and at what season
of the year.

TEQUIZISTLAN

Its temperature is cold and damp on account of its being situated
near the great lagoon in the midst of canals. The rains fall gener-
ally from May until the end of September. The winds blow from
the South from January to the end of March in which month it
blows with such violence that it causes many natives to suffer
dangerously from headaches. From April onward, until the rains
begin, the North wind generally blows with great strength at sun-
set. This does less harm to the natives than the South wind.

TEPECHPAN

The temperature and quality of the climate of the capital
Tepechpan is cold and damp, for the greater part of it lies low
among canals. All of its dependencies are in a cold, dry region.
Rains fall generally from the first of May to the end of September.
South winds are prevalent from Christmas until the end of March
and are very violent during the whole of this month, causing ill-
ness among the natives. From April onwards the North wind
blows and is less harmful, for in the day time it is temperate. All
night it blows violently but as at this time the natives have re-
tired into their homes it does not harm them.

52 OFFICIAL REPORTS

ACOLMAN

The capital town of Acolman is cold and damp on account of
being situated among canals and of having bad night dews. Its
dependencies are in a cold region and lack water because the only
water they have is rain water in basins or pools. From the middle
of December until the end of March the South wind gives the na-
tives headaches and pains in their bodies. In March it blows with
great force. When the rains begin, the North wind blows and is
unhealthy for the natives even if it blows temperately.

TEOTIHUACAN

The region in which said town and its dependencies lie, is cold,
excepting its capital which is cold and damp on account of being
situated among canals and fountains all proceeding from flowing
springs. In winter from Christmas to March the South wind
blows, with greater violence in March. It is unhealthful for the
natives. From March to the end of October the North wind blows
but does no harm to the natives because it 1s tempered.

QUESTION IV

State whether the country is level, rough, flat or mountainous;
with many or few rivers and fountains, with abundance or scarc-
ity of water; whether fertile or lacking in pasture; with an
abundance or scarcity of fruits and sustenance.

TEQUIZISTLAN

Its entire district consists of a level plain open on all sides
without any trees. Towards the East there is a high range of
mountains. It lacks wood. The natives drink water from wells.
It lacks fodder but yields an abundance of maize and beans,
cactus fruits, cherries and agaves, of which the natives make good
use.

‘TEPECHPAN

The land is flat and in Tepechpan and its dependencies there
are very few trees. All the natives drink stored rain water al-
though the river named San Juan passes through the town.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 53

ACOLMAN

The capital Acolman is situated in’ a plain at the foot of a
mound. It is level and has no fountains. A river called ‘“‘de San
Juan” runs by said town and is divided into three canals with
which they irrigate a great piece of land nearly a league long
and half a league wide. It is prolific in fodder and sustenance.

TEOTIHUACAN

The capital, San Juan, and all its subordinate towns lie in a
plain and the farthest of the latter is situated at a distance of two
leagues from the capital. Towards the North, a league distant,
is a great mountain which the natives name Tenan, which in
Spanish means ‘‘mother,”’ because many small hills issue from it.!

1 The second half of this name, ‘‘nan,’’ is an abbreviation of ‘‘ Nantli,’’ mother, while the
first, ‘‘te,” is a contraction of ‘ Tetl,’’ stone; thus the ancient Nahuatl name of the mountain
signified ‘‘Stone Mother,” or ‘‘ Mother of Stone.’’ The native explanation that the moun-
tain was so named “‘ because many small hills issue from it’’ and because “‘it had given birth 10
many other mountains” (see answer to Question X XI) is shown to be strikingly appropriate by
the report on the geology of the mountain recently published by Sefior Ezequiel Ordofiez, the
distinguished ex-Director of the Geographical Institute of Mexico, in the monumental work
already cited on the Valley of Teotihuacan issued by the Department of Anthropology.

Sefior Ordofiez writes that the mountain, an extinct volcano, ‘‘does not now show its crater
which had once vomited such great volumes of lava and loose stones, doubtlessly because the
residue of the last lava flow had consolidated and obstructed its mouth. Before becoming
extinct, however, it gave birth to a number of small subordinate volcanoes which, like parasite
volcanoes, are scattered Over its eastern, northern, and western slopes, and look very fresh.”
From the foregoing, it may be inferred that the native name ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ dated from a
period when the dying volcano gave periodical birth to the small craters, possibly in compara-
tively recent times. Compare note 1 on p. 74.

Additional light is thrown on the ancient association of the mountain with the production
of stone by other facts recorded by Sefior Ordofiez and also reported upon by the energetic and
painstaking young geologist, Sefior Diaz Lozano, in the same monumental work. Both geolo-
gists point out, as a characteristic of the now extinct volcano, the enormous quantities of loose
stones and volcanic bombs which it cast forth with great force and scattered over the adjacent
plains. Sefior Ordofiez states that the first inhabitants of the Valley of Teotihuacan must have
found it thickly strewn with loose stones which would have constituted an inducement for them
to settle there and build a city. Close by, moreover, was an inexhaustible supply of loose basal-
tic stones of a portable size, for between the base of the ‘‘ Mother of Stone”’ and the site of the
ancient metropolis there are vast areas covered with basaltic agglomerations which can easily
be detached and there are also great caves or pockets entirely filled with loose stones. One of
these caves is two hundred and ten feet long, sixty feet wide and forty-five feet high — others
are three hundred feet long and nine feet deep. Besides this loose portable material the mountain
furnished different kinds of basalt which were shaped and worked at a later period, a peculiar
basalt whose structure furnished very compact and hard, thin, flat stone slabs which the primi-
tive builders used as flags for flooring, in making drains and as supports for cornices. Pointed
fragments of this hard stone were also employed as chisels by the ancient sculptors; besides all
this valuable building material the same mountain had produced the immense quantity of
the very light, porous loose fragments of lava, of various colors, which are so extensively em-
ployed by the ancient constructors. The entire appropriateness of the name bestowed upon
the prolific mountain by the ancient builders is therefore amply demonstrated, as well as its

54 OFFICIAL REPORTS

Another hill, medium sized, shelters the southeastern portion of
the plain. In the territory of the subordinate towns there is a lack
of water and the natives drink stored rain water. In the capital
there is an abundance of water and many springs close together |
that feed a large river on which the natives have a mill. The
water of said river irrigates two leagues of land, which is the
whole length of its course. It passes by the towns of Acolman,
Tepechpan, Tequizistlan, and the boundary of Texcoco, and emp-
ties itself into the lagoon. This region yields an abundance of

fodder and food supplies. |

QUESTION V

State whether the district is inhabited. by many or few Indians
and whether in former times it had a greater or lesser population;
the causes for the increase or diminution and whether the inhabi-
tants live in regular towns permanently or not.

State also what is the character and condition of their intel-
ligence, inclinations and modes of life; also whether different
languages are spoken throughout the whole province or whether
they have one which is spoken by all.

TEQUIZISTLAN

In ancient times, before the Conquest, it was densely populated
and had more than four thousand tribute-paying inhabitants.
After the Conquest many died from an illness like itch or mange
all over the body. Since then they have always had illnesses.
The Indians think that these have increased because they now
have more luxury than in former times and because, before the

unquestionable antiquity; for all indications point to the name having been invented at a re-
mote period when small craters were still being formed and when the vast agglomerations of
portable building material had been discovered and exploited by the founders of the great me-
tropolis, that owed its existence to the vast amount of portable stones so conveniently at hand.

The ancient name ‘‘ Tenan”’ is quite unknown to the present inhabitants of the region, as I
found on making many inquiries. Nor is the old name recorded in the recent publication men-
tioned above.

In a document dated 1608, published in this same work (Part III, p. 573), the name of the
mountain is given as ‘‘ Temiztepetl,’’ called ‘‘ Cerro Gordo,” and the latter Spanish name is the
only one by which it is known by the natives nowadays. The fact that the ancient name
“Tenan,’’ which appears to hark back to the nebulous period when Teotihuacan was founded,
is in the highly developed and ancient Nahuatl tongue furnishes a valuable indication that
the occupation of the Valley by Toltecs, a Nahuatl-speaking race, long ante-dated the arrival
of the Aztecs in historical times. ,

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 55

Conquest, they used to go naked and sleep on the ground and eat
cactus leaves, cooked agave leaves and other plants yielding
scant nourishment. Now they live well, eat delicate viands, baked
bread, chicken, and beef and mutton, and wear clothes and sleep
high [that is, in beds] covered at night with blankets. Any excess
makes them ill, especially the drinking of pulque, which is gen-
eral amongst them and is drunk from their childhood. Previous
to the Conquest, when they did not drink nor were permitted
to do so and were punished for drinking, they died old. Nowadays
they do not live as long.!_ This town has no streets nor have its
dependencies, which are scattered about. The inhabitants are of
medium intelligence. Their inclination is toward cultivating their
lands excepting in one dependency which lies on the shore of the
lagoon, in which the natives live on fishing and catching ducks
and other birds with nets. They speak the Nahuatl language.

TEPECHPAN

At the present time this town and its dependencies have nine
hundred and fifty tribute payers. In former times, and a short
time before the Conquest, it was densely populated. The inhabi-
tants have dwindled on account of the diseases they have had,
which, according to the native belief, proceeded from their having
less work and more luxury than before the Conquest, and also
from the drinking of pulque and because at present the natives
eat fowl and other birds whereas formerly they ate cactus leaves
and the pulpy agave leaves and other herbs of little sustenance.
The town is not a regular but a scattered one. The foremost or
chief natives are of medium understanding and the rest are rude
and dull. They are inclined to cultivate the land and maintain
themselves by this exclusively. The Nahuatl tongue is commonly
spoken, with the exception of some few natives who speak the
Otomi tongue.

ACOLMAN

In past times it had many inhabitants. The natives were not
able to tell us anything more certain than that in every house there
lived six or seven married couples, besides unmarried youths.
They died of the illnesses which spread amongst them. At the

1 For interesting evidence concerning the relative health and longevity of the natives before
and after the Conquest, see the answers to Question XV and notes thereto.

56 OFFICIAL REPORTS

present day according to the list of tribute payers, it has nineteen
hundred of these. It is built without order and is not a regular
town. Its inhabitants are well disposed although dull of under-
standing. They live by cultivating the soil. The language they
generally use is the Nahuatl. A few speak Otomi.

TEOTIHUACAN

The natives say that in ancient times this town was thickly pop-
ulated by a great number of inhabitants. At present it has besides
the ordinary population, according to appraisement, one thousand
and six hundred payers of tribute. The natives say that many of
them died during an epidemic which occurred a year before the
discovery of New Spain. The town was not founded on a regular
plan, but consists of a number of scattered houses. The inhabi-
tants of said town are a polished people of a good understanding !
who always live on the produce of their land. They speak
Nahuatl generally, but a very few of them speak the Otomi and
Popoluca tongues.

QUESTION VI

State the latitude in which these towns of Spaniards lie if this
has been taken or if known or if there is any one who knows how
to take it. State on what days of the year the sun does not cast
a shadow at noon.

TEQUIZISTLAN

This town lies in a straight line directly north of the City of Mex-
ico at a distance of three leagues, therefore its latitude would be
ten minutes higher than that of said city. In the middle of May
and at the end of June the sun casts no shadow at noon.

TEPECHPAN

The latitude of the town of Tepechpan is about twelve minutes
higher than the City of Mexico as its distance is about three

1 Attention is drawn to the significant fact that whereas the inhabitants of Teotihuacan are
described as ‘‘a polished people of a good understanding,” those of two of the.other towns are
entered as ‘‘of medium intelligence,” and those of Acolman as ‘‘ well disposed although dull
of understanding.” The higher degree of culture was evidently a survival from the time when
Teotihuacan was the capital of a province, the residence of the ruling intellectual class and a
great religious centre.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 57

leagues to the North of said City. In the middle of May and
at the end of June the sun casts no shadow because the sun is at
the zenith and shadows are under one’s feet and do not incline in
any direction.

ACOLMAN

Acolman lies due north from the City of Mexico at a distance of
a little more than three leagues; the difference in the latitude is
nine minutes. In the middle of May and almost at the end of
June the sun casts no shadow at noon and the shadow is underfoot.

TEOTIHUACAN

On account of the lack of the necessary instrument it was not
possible to determine the latitude of the town, but, judging by that
of the City of Mexico, it must be a little over twenty degrees. At
the end of the month of May and in June the sun casts no shadow
at noon.!

QUESTION VII?

State the distance in leagues between each city or town occu-
pied by Spaniards and the city in which resides the Audiencia to
whose jurisdiction it belongs or the residence of the governor to
whom it is subject — also the direction in which said cities and
towns lie from each other.

QUESTION VIII

Give also the distance in leagues between each city or town oc-
cupied by Spaniards and those of the adjoining district, stating in
what direction they lie; whether the leagues are long or short,
the country level or broken and mountainous; whether the roads
are straight or winding and good or bad for travel.

QUESTION IX

State the name and surname that every city or town has or had
and the reason, if known, why they were so named; also who was

1 In the Valley of Mexico and at Teotihuacan the sun is in the zenith twice a year: on
May 17th at about 11.33 a.m., on its journey northward, and on July 26th, at about 11.43 a.m.,
on its return southward, at legal time (that is, the local mean time of the 105th Meridian).

2 The following six questions are grouped together, and others will be similarly treated
when the answers to them sent in from the four towns are more or less incomplete or are fur-
nished by one town and not by another.

58 OFFICIAL REPORTS

their founder, who named them, and by whose order or mandate
he made the settlement; the year of its foundation and the num-
ber of inhabitants at that and at the present time.

QUESTION X

State the situation of said town, if it lies high or low or in a plain,
and give a plan or colored drawing of the streets, squares and
other places, the monasteries to be marked, which can be easily
sketched on paper, as well as can be done. It is to be noted which
parts of the town face North and South.

QUESTION XI

In the case of Indian towns it is only to be stated how far they
are from the capital, in what district and jurisdiction they lie,
and which is the nearest centre for the teaching of religious doc-
trine. The names of all of the chief towns in its jurisdiction are
to be given as well as those of their respective dependencies.

QUESTION XII

State also the distance between the other towns of Indians or
Spaniards that surround it and the directions in which they lie and
whether the leagues are long or short and the roads level or straight
or mountainous and winding.

TEQUIZISTLAN!

The distance between the town of Tequizistlan and the City of
Mexico, where the Royal Audiencia resides, is -of five leagues of
road, three running from North to South and two from East to
West. The town lies at the Northeast of the City of Mexico. It
lies in a low plain, among canals, very close to the lagoon. It is

1 Sefior Troncoso has drawn attention to the fact that in a document dating from the middle
of thesixteenth century, the name of this town is given as “‘ Tecciztlan”’ (op. cit., Vol. VI, p. 226
note). This is confirmed by the use of the great marine conch shell —“ Tecciztli’’— as the hiero-
glyph to designate the town in the Alonso de Santa Cruz map, although the Spanish rendering
of the name as ‘‘ Tequizistlan,’’ is written alongside. (See Plate 2, upper left corner.) The native
informants were evidently aware that the local name was derived from some sort of shell. The
gratuitous and plausible explanation they volunteered, however, about the name having origi-
nated from the abundance of small fresh-water shells found in the canals is obviously wrong,
and may have been inspired by the wish to appear ignorant of the name, even, of the marine
conch shell that was so intimately associated with the cult of the moon and the water gods in
their ancient, forbidden and persecuted religion.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 59

the capital of the district of the Corregidor and is a league distant
from Acolman, the centre for the teaching of religious doctrine.
Its dependencies are Totoltzinco and Acaltecoya. It lies to the
Northeast of the City of Mexico, separated from it by a distance:
of five leagues of straight and level road running from North to
South for three leagues and from East to West for two leagues.
A straight and level road leads to the City of Texcoco which lies
to the Southeast at a distance of two leagues. These leagues are
medium ones.

TEPECHPAN

The town of Tepechpan is at a distance of five leagues from the
City of Mexico where the Audiencia and Royal Chancery reside
and is separated by a level road which runs directly from North to
South for three leagues and two from East to West. It lies to the
Northeast of the City of Mexico. The town is situated in a plain
on the southern slope of a small hill. The plain is open to all sides.
It has, to the Northwest, a small mountain which shelters it, and
at the North the hill at whose base it lies protects it also some-
what. It is exposed towards the East. It belongs to the jurisdic-
tion of Tequizistlan and is at a distance of a quarter of a league
from said town and from Acolman where the monks who teach
the Doctrine reside. Within three quarters of a league are its
dependencies, Santiago Zaqualuca, San Miguel Atlanmaxac, Santa
Ana Tlachahualeo, San Francisco Temazcalapa, San Matheo
Teopancalco, San Pedro Tulamihuacan, San Cristobal Culhuaca-
zingo, Santa Maria Maquiteco, San Juan Teacalco, San Bartolome
Atoecpan, San Geronimo Chiapa and Santa Maria Suchitepec.

The town Tepechpan is at a distance from the City of Mexico
of five medium leagues by level road, which runs for three leagues
from North to South and two from East to West. It les North-
east of the City of Mexico.

At the Southwest of the town of Tepechpan lies the town of
Texcoco two long leagues distant by a straight and level road. At
its South lies the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a league distant
by a straight road and at its North the town of Acolman, its reli-
gious centre, three quarters of a league distant by a straight, level
road. Towards the West it has the town and district of Chico-
nauhtla, two short leagues distant by a straight and level road.

60 OFFICIAL REPORTS

ACOLMAN

The town of Acolman falls under the jurisdiction of the City of
Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of five
long leagues of level road, three and a half of which run almost
due North to South and a league and a half to the Northeast. At
its Southwest lies the town of Texcoco at a distance of two and a
half leagues of straight, level road. It belongs to the jurisdiction
of the district of Tequizistlan and is the chief seat of religious
instruction. Its dependencies are San Pedro Tepetitlan, San
Antonio Huiztonco, San Miguel Jumetla, Santa Maria Tlatecpa,
Sant Ana Atenpa, San Bartolome Quauhtlapeco, San Juan Chico-
nauhtecapa, Santiago Atla, Tres Reyes Yzquitlan, San Agustin
Aticpac, San Martin Tonala, San Niculas Tenextlacotla, Santa
Maria Ostonocazeca, San Matheo Tezcacohuac, Santo Tomas
Atlauhco, San Marcos Quauhyoca, San Felipe Sacatepec, San
Martin Huiznahuac, Santa Maria Atenpa, San Juan Tlaxicaya,
Santiago Nopaltepec, San Matheo Tochatlauco, San Lucas Tla-
mazingo, Santa Maria Saquala, Santa Maria Chiapan, San Juan
Tepehuizco and San Juan Atlatonco.

To its South it has the town of Tepechpan, three quarters of .a
league distant; to the North-northeast the town of San Juan
Teotihuacan, one league distant; to the Southwest the town of
Texcoco, nearly two and a half leagues distant; to the West the
town and district of Chiconauhtla, a long league and a half distant.

TEOTIHUACAN

The town of San Juan Teotihuacan lies to the Northeast, of the
City of Mexico where the Royal Audiencia resides, at a distance of
six long leagues of level country. The said town of San Juan is
separated from the city of Texcoco by three long leagues of
straight road and level country. Its distance from Acolman is one
league; from Tequizistlan two leagues both lying almost directly
South. Tequizistlan is the capital of the Corregimiento.

Its subordinate towns are: San Lorenzo Atezcapa, San Miguel
Tldtezcac, San Matheo Tenango, San Sebastian Chimalpan, Santa
Maria Aguatlan, San Francisco Magatlan, San Pedro Tlaguican,
San Martin Teacal, Santiago Tolman, San Andres Oztolpachun-
can (szc), Los Reyes Aticpac, San Antonio Tlajomulco, San Agustin

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 61

Ohuayucan, San Pedro Ocotitlan, San Miguel Tlalguac, San Luis
Xiuhquemeccan, San Juan Evangelista Tlaylotlacan. Its distance
from Otumba is two leagues to the Northeast by a straight road.
The town of Tepetlauztuc lies to the Southwest at a distance of
two and a half leagues of level ground.

QUESTION XIII

State what the name of the Indian town means; why it was so
named; what there is to know about it and what its name is in the
language which the native inhabitants actually speak.

TEQUIZISTLAN

Tequizistlan means “‘ place where shells abound ”’ and, accord-
ing to the natives, it is so called because there are many shells in
the canals of said town. The sole language they speak is the

Nahuatl.
‘TEPECHPAN !

Tepechpan in the Indian language means ‘‘a town set on a large
rock” and is named thus because it was founded near a rocky hill.
The language spoken by the natives of the chief town and its de-
pendencies is the Nahuatl, with the exception that some few of
them speak Otomi. .

ACOLMAN 2

Acolman in the Nahuatl language means “shoulder and arm.”
‘The Indians could give no reason why it was thus named. The
language they generally speak is the Nahuatl; a few speak Otomi.

1 “ Tepexitl’’ —a large rock; ‘‘Pan’’— upon. In the original document the name of this
town is written ‘‘ Tepexpan ’’ — a spelling ‘that is more correct than ‘‘ Tepechpan,’’ now in use.

2 The name of the town of Acolman, expressed by a rebus consisting of a shoulder and arm
combined with the sign for water, is an interesting specimen of the native picture writing. The
shoulder — ‘‘ Acolli’’ — conveys the first two syllables of the name and the sign for water —
‘** Atl”? — serves as a determinative by duplicating the vowel ‘‘a.’’ The hand — ‘ Maitl’? —
furnishes the syllable ‘“‘ma,”’ and thus ‘‘ Acol-ma”’ was conveyed, this being the ancient name,
as can be seen in the Plan (Plate 1) where it is spelt ‘‘ Aculma,” the u and o being interchange-
able in the Nahuatl tongue. The fact that the same hieroglyph served also to express the tribal
name “‘ Acolhua”’ and the name of the province “Acolhuacan’’ is revealed by its use in combina-
tion with the sign for Texcoco in the Codex Mendoza, the Codex Osuna, and in the arms of the
town conferred upon it by Philip IT.

This combination was probably assumed after the Conquest of Acolman, the ancient metrop-
olis of Acolhuacan, by Nezahualcoyotl, when Texcoco became the capital of the province, and
the name Acolhuacan was applied to the whole territory subjected to the Texcocan rulers.

In the famous map of Alonso de Santa Cruz, the familiar rebus consisting of an arm and
water designates the town of Acolman (see centre of Plate 2 and compare with Fig. 2, from

62 OFFICIAL REPORTS

TEOTIHUACAN

In the language of the Indians the name of the town of San
Juan is Teotihuacan, meaning ‘‘temple of gods,’ because in this
town there was the oracle where the Indians of Mexico and those
of all other surrounding towns idolatrized.!

QUESTION XIV

State to whom the Indians belonged in heathen times and what
dominion was exercised over them by their lords; what tribute
they paid and the form of worship, rites and customs they had,
good or bad.?

Codex Mexicanus, Collection Goupil-Aubin Planche, 24, op. cit.) the name of which is, however,
. not written also in Spanish characters as in the case of the majority of other places. It was
probably for this reason, and for the misleading error of the map-maker, who wrote the name
““Tequizistlan’’ close by (in the wrong place and for the second time) that it was overlooked by
Sefior Arreola in the recent Mexican government publication already cited. On page 370 of
Tomo I, Volume IT, he actually affirms: ‘‘ Alonso de Santa Cruz does not even register the town
of Acclman.’”’ (‘‘Alonso de Santa Cruz no registro siquiera el pueblo de Acolman.’’)

It is interesting to note that in 1697 Gemelli Carreri wrote that he had visited ‘the town of
Acolman or Aculma,’’ which shows that both pronunciations were still in use at that time.

The fact that, in the Codex Mendoza, the identical sign composed by an arm and water is
used to designate the town of ‘‘ Coliman’’ — Colima — is interpreted by Orozco y Berra and
Pefiafiel, in Nombres Geogrdficos, as implying that this locality, near the Pacific Coast, was con-
quered by the Acolhuas. They were evidently not aware that Ixtlilxochitl, the native historian
whose statements are of great weight, having been approved of by the six most learned and
aged caciques of his time, relates that the Acolhuas ‘‘ were from beyond the provinces of Mich-
oacan,’’ and that in the year One Flint (1063 a.p.) three Acolhua lords, whose names he gives,
““accompanied by many vassals, among them the nation of Otomis, having heard of the
greatness of Xolotl, the Chichimec lord and leader, of his having seized all the country and
that he was colonizing it, came to offer him obedience and ask him for lands where they could
colonize. He was much pleased to see them, for they were a civil people, well governed, and
giving them lands fer colonizing, he also gave two of them daughters of his in marriage; to the
principal lord named Acolhua he gave his oldest daughter, and the town of Atzcapotzalco as
the capital of his state, with more lands and provinces for his vassals; to the second, with a
daughter, the town of Xaltocan (on an island in the lake of Xaltocan); and to the third ‘ Acol-
huatitlan Acolhuacan.’ In this way he obliged them, telling them that they only needed to
recognize him as their lord and sovereign, and need not pay him any tribute whatsoever.” (See
Obras Historicas de . . . Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero, Mexico, 1891, Tomo I, p. 94, also p. 268
and Tomo II, p. 40.) Archaeological evidence, obtained in recent years, strikingly confirms the
truth of the above history, for a remarkable similarity exists between the type of the clay figu-
rines I and several fellow-archaeologists have found near Atzcapotzalco (in my case at a depth
of 16 feet under a gravel-bed) and those unearthed in the present states of Michoacan and Col-
ima. Both are characterized by thesame type of long, narrow faces and square brows, etc., the
clay being, in both cases, of a fine, light-colored variety.

1 Without entering here into what would be a fruitless discussion of the many different
etymologies of the name that have been published from time to time, the newest being contained
in the recent publication of the Mexican Government, attention is drawn to the interesting ex-
planation given here that Teotihuacan owed its name and designation as a ‘‘temple of gods”
to a famous oracle that was there. Further mention of this oracle will be found in the answer to
Question XIV.

2 Attention is drawn here to the curious fact that in the following answers from the town
of Tequizistlan it is stated that ‘‘they adored the idol Huitzilopochtli”; in the answer from

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 63

TEQUIZISTLAN

In ancient times the Indians came from Chicomoztoc in the land
of the Chichimecs and peopled the town of Tequizistlan and the
other districts. They had as their lord Izcuin, who wore a cloak
of coarse agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. Every day they
contributed some rabbits and snakes for his sustenance and he had
Indian servants who guarded and served in his house. He did not
eat fowl. Besides the above they gave him skirts and shoulder
capes of coarse agave fibre. He did not use cotton; nor did the
natives take him aught beyond what has been stated. They
adored the idol Huitzilopochtli and every eighty days they sacri-
freed thereto the Indians who were condemned to death for crimes
they had committed. They lived and were condemned to pun-
ishments according to the law of Nature.

TEPECHPAN

The Indians affirm that in heathen times they formed an in-
dependent republic. They paid no tribute to their lords but only
acknowledged them as such by giving them daily, hares, rabbits,
snakes, quail and domestic fowl. They were Chichimecs until
some years later a cacique of somewhat greater culture, named
Axoquauhtzin, became their ruler. To him they contributed,
every eighty days, four loads of coarse agave-fibre cloths, each
load containing twenty cloths and eighty sandals; also four loads
of the finer cloths made of agave fibre called ‘‘ayates.’’ Later on,
fifty years previous to the reign of Montezuma, lord of Mexico, the
lordship of Tepechpan was held by Tencuyotzin, to whom the
natives of said town began to yield tribute. Every eighty days
they brought him fifty cotton cloths four legs (piernas) wide and
eight arm-lengths long; and also thirty other cotton cloths four
arm-lengths long and four legs wide; also forty other cloths for
wearing worked with rabbits’ wool and twenty loads of cocoa from
Soconozco, each load containing twenty-four thousand cocoa
beans; also forty skirts and as many shoulder capes (for women); _
twenty loads of chili peppers and as many of seeds.

Tepechpan, that ‘‘they had no idols and worshipped the Sun daily’’; in the answer from Acol-
man, that ‘‘they adored Tezcatlipoca’’; and in that from Teotihuacan, that ‘‘their principal
idol was Huitzilopochtli,’’ but that ‘‘for greater veneration, this had been placed on the hill

of Chapultepec,” a statement that may have been made for the purpose of warding off any
search for this idol being made at Teotihuacan.

64 OFFICIAL REPORTS

They had no idols and worshipped the sun, offering it daily,
snakes, butterflies and some game birds. The man who first
found any kind of the above creatures, at whatever hour of the
day it might be, cut off its head and, turning towards the sun,
offered it so that the sun should protect him that day. They had
no other rite or custom and occupied themselves with hunting.

ACOLMAN

In ancient times, when they were heathens, the natives of Acol-
man, those of Coatlinchan in the district of Texcoco, and those of
Atzcapotzalco named Tepanecs, knew no alien lord and only ren-
dered obedience to their native lords until about twenty years, more
or less, before the Marques del Valle arrived
and conquered New Spain, one Nezahualco-
yotzin, lord of Texcoco, allied himself with
Montezuma, lord of Mexico, and tyrannized
over the whole region. Afterwards the natives
of the town began to render tribute to the lord
of Texcoco, but only to the extent of furnish-
ing him with fighting men in war time. To
their native lords they had formerly paid, as
tribute, a load of coarse agave-fibre cloths, twenty in a load and
another load of thin agave-fibre cloths; a load of women’s shoulder
capes of thin agave fibre; a load of petticoats of the same and
some fowl (they did not know how many). Every day they con-
tributed a load of dried agave leaves to be used for fuel, and an-
other load of the wood of the wild cherry tree. Their lord had,
in his house, Indians who guarded and served him. They adored
Tezcatlipoca.

When they returned from warfare and brought some prisoners
they assembled by order of the lord and held a festival, taking those
who were to be sacrificed to a great temple which is in the said
town. They were decked with rich cloths, carried flowers in their
hands and danced. until they reached the summit of the pyra-
mid temple where they tamely submitted to being stripped and
thrown backwards on a large stone on the edge of which they were
stretched, their head and legs hanging and their breast taut. A

FiGcure 2

PLACE-NAME OF ACOLMAN

1 Instead of ‘‘twenty years, more or less,”’ read ‘‘ninety years,” the final Conquest of Acolman
and Teotihuacan and adjacent country by Nezahualcoyotl and his cousin Montezuma the Elder
having taken place in 1429.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 65

cut was made across the body below the ribs with a flint knife and
the heart was torn out. This was carried in a painted gourd bowl
to the idol and was cast before it. Old men were specially ap-
pointed for this office and they took the dead body and placed it
in a bath. After it was well washed with hot water they cooked
and ate it, dividing it between the chieftains and captains. They
lived according to the law of Nature. |

The Indians who distinguished themselves in warfare, took
prisoners and killed enemies, were authorized to wear on their
heads in peace times as a mark of distinction, white feathers
stuck on with paste. In the month of March they celebrated
a feast which they named Tlacaxipehualiztli which means ‘‘the
flaying of a person.”’ It was ordered that during twenty days
the slaves who were to be sacrificed danced every day, singing sad
songs, carrying certain shields and flowers in their hands and wear-
ing a kind of wide shirt sewn together at the sides and named
“‘xicalco.”’

When, at the end of the twenty days, they were to be sacrificed
they were taken to the summit of the pyramid temple where the
idol was. After the heart had been torn out and offered to the
idol, the corpse was thrown to the base of the pyramid and beaten
with rods until the skin became raised.!. Then they flayed it and
an Indian clothed himself with it and ran about the neighboring
towns showing himself and begging for alms. He was given maize
and huauhtl: and other things, all of which was given to the owner
of the sacrificed slave who, twenty days after the sacrifice, took
the flayed skin and buried it publicly in the temple of the idol.
Inviting all the lords on the day of the burial, they consumed all
the edibles which had been collected as alms. On the day when
the slave was sacrificed the lords arrayed themselves and danced
all day long and partook of the flesh of the victim. On the day
when the skin was buried they beat a drum in the temple of the
idol, at the sound of which all Indians who were working in their
fields ran and shut themselves up in their houses. For the Indian
who had worn the skin ran all over the country and if he found
anyone working in the fields he shaved the top of his head and
thus made him a slave. If he found no living soul, instead of. hair

1 According to Sefior Troncoso y Paso, this method of treating the skin before flaying the

body was also used by the Indians of Teutitlan. It was probably the method generally em-
ployed in the gruesome rite.

66 OFFICIAL REPORTS

he had to cut agave leaves to bring back to the temple. They ob-
served the custom of burning incense every twenty days in a cir-
cular building nearly two yards high. The vassals daily burnt in-
cense in their homes.

The festivals they observed every twenty days had different
names. One of them was named Suchimanaloya, which means
‘“‘the gathering of flowers,” ! it being the custom to gather, on that
day, many flowers in the hills and plains and to place them where
they burned incense without any further rite or ceremony. An-
other festival was named Hueytozoztli, its ritual being that, three
days previously, they gathered some of the earliest maize shoots
and tied them in bunches with bean-blossoms. On the feast day
they carried these to the house of the owner of the field in which
they had been gathered and laid them on a clean mat. In front
of said bunches they placed as an offering, a small basketful of
pinole which is made of roasted and ground maize, and a basket of
tamales and on the top of the basket a cooked frog ? with its limbs
stretched out. It was their intention thereby to appease their
idol so that it would give them a good harvest. When the said
feast day had passed the owner of the field in which said maize
shoots had been gathered, ate the offerings. They had another
festival named Toxcatl, the ceremonial of which was to take
maize from the fields and roast it and when it popped and burst
to string the pop-corn for necklaces and chaplets which they wore
on their necks and heads. ‘The old people danced, rejoicing at the
good year conceded to them.

Another festival was named Etzalqualiztli and its ritual was
that. they took maize, beans, huauhlli, and all kinds of seeds they
cultivated and made tamales of them all mixed together. Small
groups consisting of five, six or ten persons went dancing through
the streets and into houses and the palaces of the lords where they
offered each other the aforesaid tamales as a sign of festivity and
rejoicing.

They had five other festivals named Tecuilhuitontli, Hueytecuil-
huitl, Miccailhuitl, Hueymiccailhuitl and Ochpaniztli in which

1 This seems to have been a local name for the festival that is usually named ‘‘ Tozoztli’’ —
the feast that followed it being designated as ‘‘ Huei-tozoztli’’ or ‘‘ the great Tozoztli.”’

2 The frog was the emblem of the goddess of water, and she was worshipped under this form.
An “extremely beautiful Temple of the Frog, the goddess of Water’ is mentioned by Ixtlilxo-
chitl (Obras Histéricas . . . ed. Chavero, Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 37) as having been built by
the Toltecs in the ninth century of the Christian era by Mitl.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 67

the only ceremony observed was the burning of incense in front
of the idol. They had another festival named Tepeilhuitl which
means ‘‘the feast of the mountains,” the ritual of which was that
whenever an Indian, on going to fetch fuel, found any piece of
wood or branch which was crooked or twisted, he brought it to
his house and when this festival arrived, covered it with the dough
named tzoalli, placed it on a clean rush mat, and when the festival
was over, ate the dough. They had another festival named Que-
cholli, the ritual of which was to take dry canes and make arrows
of them, decorating them with feathers. Early in the morning of
this day all the common people assembled arrayed for warfare
and went hunting. They then danced with the produce of their
hunt such as rabbits, rats or snakes, and ate them with tamales
made of maize and the sweet juice of the agave.

They had another festival named Panquetzaliztli, in which the
boys of the town aged ten years or less, wearing rich mantles,
danced in honor of the idol in the temple square. During the
other two festivals named Atemoztli and Tititl, the sole ceremonial
was the burning of incense before the idol.

Another festival was named Izcalli and its ritual was that after
midnight they took their children and holding their heads between
the palms of their hands lifted them repeatedly so that they should
grow rapidly. At the same time they also feasted and drank.

In another festival, named Quahuitlecua, their ritual was that
the chieftain took many folded sheets of paper and joining them
together made [something] like a lance. He then went to the top
of some hill where they had their idols, followed by all the common
people and there they offered the papers and burnt incense and
covered the idols with cotton mantles, leaving them there until
time destroyed them.

TEOTIHUACAN

In heathen times its people constituted a republic which recog-
nized no authority but that of its natural lords who were [of the
race] named Chichimecas, until Netzahualcoyotzin, lord of Tex-
coco, made war and tyrannized over the whole territory, killing
sons of Tetzotzomoctzin, lord of Atzcapotzalco, to whom all ren-
dered allegiance. After the death of Tetzotzomoctzin the said
Netzahualcoyotzin made himself powerful by making an alliance

68 OFFICIAL REPORTS

with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They divided between them-
selves the lands of the towns of Teotihuacan and Acolman. The
inhabitants of Teotihuacan, in recognition of their overlordship,
paid them as tribute, every eight days, some blankets made of
coarse agave fibre, named zchtzlmates, and some loads of agave
leaves, named metlonilt.

Their principal idol was Huitzilopochtli which for greater vener-
ation was placed on the hill of Chapultepec in the City of Mexico.
Aside from this there were other minor idols'in the town of San
Juan which was the temple and oracle to which the inhabitants of
all neighboring towns flocked.

In the said town there was a very high pyramid temple which
had [stairs with] three landing places [terraces] by means of which
one ascended to the summit.!. On its summit was a stone idol they
named Tonacatecuhlli, made of a very hard, rough stone all of one
piece. It was eighteen feet long, six feet wide and six feet thick,
and faced the West.?

In the level space in front of said temple, there was another small
one, eighteen feet high, on which was an idol smaller than the
first, named Micttlantecuhtli, which means Lord of the Under-
world. This faced the first and was seated on a large stone six feet
square. A little farther to the North was another [pyramid]
temple slightly smaller than the first, which was called ‘‘the Hill
of the Moon,” on the top of which was another great idol nearly
eighteen feet high which they named the Moon. Surrounding
this [pyramid] temple were many others, in the largest of which
were six other idols called ‘‘the Brethren of the Moon,” to all of
which the priests of Montezuma, the lord of Mexico, with the
said Montezuma came to offer sacrifices, every twenty days.°

1 This positive statement that the pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan consisted of three
stages is confirmed by therepresentations of both pyramids in the accompanying Map (Plate 1)
and in that made by the famous cosmographer Alonso de Santa Cruz (see Plate 2, lower right-
hand side).

2 The stone idol described here is the ‘‘image of the Sun’? mentioned by Gemelli Carreri
who in 1697 was shown a fragment of it that had been thrown from the summit of the pyramid
of the Sun and had, on account of its great size, stayed half way down. Ixtlilxochitl, the native
historian, who resided at Teotihuacan, states that Tonacatecuhlli signified ‘‘God of Sustenance”’
(‘‘ Tonacayotl’?—human sustenance or the fruits of the earth, and ‘*‘ Tecuhlli’’—lord) and
that this was one of the principal gods, in the figure of the sun, the other being his wife, in the
figure of the moon. (Obras Histéricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, ed. Chavero,
Mexico 1891, Tomo I, p. 39.)

3 This statement that Montezuma and his priests came to Teotihuacan every twenty days
is of extreme importance and interest, for it reveals that this ancient Toltec capital continued
to be a great religious centre down to the time of the Spanish Conquest.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 69

During the entire year they observed eighteen festivals, or one
festival every period of twenty days. Each festival had its differ-
ent ceremonials as is set forth in paragraph fourteen of the descrip-
tion of Acolman to which I refer.

Every four-year period closed with a feast on the number twenty
but in the bissextile year there were five days in excess and they
then held a feast in a large square that was situated between the
two pyramids. In the centre of this square there was a small plat-
form about twelve feet high on which they punished evil-doers and
delinquents. 3

QUESTION XV

State how they were governed; with whom they carried on war-
fare; how they fought; the clothes and costume they wore and
now wear and whether they used to be more or less healthy than
now and the reason that is known for this.!

1 Tt is an interesting and instructive fact that, in reports from a number of towns, situated
in different parts of Mexico, the answers to Questions V and XV unanimously and invariably
relate that previous to the Conquest the natives enjoyed bettcr health and longer lives and
that the physical deterioration since then was due to the living in towns, the use of more cloth-
ing, a greater license and independence, and the indulgence in a meat diet and pulque. The
following reports from towns pertaining to the diocese of Oaxaca, corroborate these and are
particularly explicit and illuminating:

“The oldest inhabitants state that the reason why the natives are more shortlived nowadays
than in heathen times is because anciently they did not sleep in towns or settlements; and ate
naught but dry tortillas made with great labor and care.: Thus they lived strong and healthy
and when they married they were at least over thirty years of age and thus led healthy lives.
After the Spaniards came they built houses and lived in peace and tranquillity; ate an abun-
dance of different foods; wore clothes and indulged themselves. The boys marry at twelve
and fifteen, and all these things, as it is reasonable to suppose, cause them to be more short-
lived nowadays.’ (Town of Chichicapa.)

‘* . . . In olden times the natives lived a hundred years or more and now they die young
and what they say and explain and communicate to each other on the subject is that the reason
for this is that anciently the children were put to work at the age of six or seven. As there
were so many wars there was no time to cultivate much and so they ate little, slept in the open
and were fitted to live in constant labor. After the Spaniards came they wore clothes, slept
in houses, ate and drank and indulged themselves much. In those days an Indian married at
forty and now at twelve or fifteen. . ...”’ (Town of Ocelotepec.)

“|, . They used to fight with the natives of other neighboring towns for no cause or reason
whatsoever, only for the exercise and they ate the flesh of those they captured alive in battle,
and not that of those killed in warfare. ... They ate tortillas or tamales and some chile and
no more. Once a year when they celebrated their harvest, they killed a hen, chicken, dog or
rabbit (if able to catch it) or other game and ate it, offering first of all to their idol the first
fruits of all they caught or killed — for in all things they were subjected to strict laws. ...
They say that notwithstanding the hard work they used to suffer under, they used to be health-
ier . . . they say an Indian used to live more than a hundred and twenty years and now it is
a great deal if the age of eighty is reached, although the natives now lead such an easy life and
are the masters of their properties which formerly they were not, for no one then dared eat any-
thing they raised under pain of fine or death.” (Town of Iztepexi.)

“|, . Their ordinary food used to be tortillas and chile and beans and if anyone hunted a
deer, rabbit or mouse they ate it although usually they presented it to their native lord who

70 OFFICIAL REPORTS

TEQUIZISTLAN

The natives of this place had no government. All they under-
stood was to hunt and to cultivate very little land. They had
never been at war or quarrelled with anyone until Nezahualcoyot-
zin, the lord of Texcoco, conquered the district and allied himself
with Montezuma, lord of Mexico. They made vassals of the
. natives of this town and distributed among their sons the lands
they owned. They fought with bows and arrows, and clubs gar-
nished with obsidian points. They had shields made of hard cane.
Their war costume was of the skin of rabbits and other animals
and feathers of birds, and in time of peace they went naked and
only used coarse mantles of agave fibre and loin cloths. The chiefs
wore sandals. Nowadays all in general wear cotton mantles,
shirts and trousers and the women cotton shirts and shoulder
capes. Some use woollen mantles. They sleep high and cover
themselves with woollen blankets.

In ancient times their food consisted of snakes, cactus and cooked
agave leaves and some herbs of little nourishment with which they
lived heathily. Nowadays they are accustomed to eat game birds
and domestic fowl, baked bread, also other products of the lagoon,
with which they are not as healthy as in olden times because they
have more luxury now than they had then.

TEPECHPAN

According to what the natives say, they governed themselves
according to the law of Nature. For many years they lived in
peace, without being at war with anyone until, two hundred years
before the time of Montezuma, they had some encounters with
the lords of Mexico who wanted to subjugate them, whereas they

would give them some of it or some other food or clothing as a compensation, because only the
lords had permission to eat turkeys, quail, deer and other game. Nowadays everybody eats
tortillas, chile, beans, gourds and deer although they cost excessive prices, also other meats of
our cattle or of the game they kill. . . .””. (Town of Tepeucila.)

“They use at present the same foods they used to but have many meats, as they eat sheep,
ewes and cows, there being no town which does not have its community ranch and private ones,
thus having meat in abundance. ... As the reason why, in ancient times, they lived much
longer, all dying old then and young nowadays, they say it must be because they work less now
than they used to, having then to render personal service not only to the caciques and lords
but also to the ‘ Tequitlatos’ who were those who were in charge. Alsc because nowadays they
marry in boyhood, whereas formerly they did so at the age of thirty or forty. . . .’”’ (Town of
Miahuatlan.)

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 71

defended themselves so as not to receive their evil customs. They

became confederates by means of a marriage. A hundred and
twenty years later a lord of Atzcapotzalco near Mexico, named
Maxtlaton, with despotism killed Tencoyotzin, lord of Tepechpan,
in order to increase his dominion, for which reason they waged
war against Atzcapotzalco and joined the Mexicans and made war
on those of Soconusco and Tlaxcala and Huejotzinco and the
province of Michoacan.

The chieftains wore a loin cloth named maztli, no shirt, and man-
tles worked with designs, also bracelets and labrets of stones
named chalchthwtes. Ordinary men went naked with a loin cloth
only and a mantle of agave fibre. Nowadays they generally wear
cotton mantles, shirts and loose trousers; only a few wear loin
cloths. The commonest foods they have always used and still use
are maize, beans, squashes, huauhtlz and chili peppers.

After the arrival of the Marques del Valle they ate fowl. The
natives state that before he came they had never had any remark-
able illness but that about a year before his arrival, a great num-
ber of them died of a disease like small-pox which broke out all
over their bodies. Since then they have never been free from ill-
ness, they do not know why.

ACOLMAN

The lord of Acolman used to govern his Indians and punished
those who committed crimes. If any chieftain committed a crime
this was investigated by the lord of 'Texcoco. |

The people of Acolman carried on war with those of Tlaxcalla
and the mountain range of Metztitlan, and fought them with bows
and arrows, wooden sabres with obsidian points, and wore cotton
mantles. In time of peace the chieftains always wore fine loin
clothes, mantles of agave fibre, and sandals, excepting at festivals
when they wore mantles worked with designs. When they went
out, in order to protect themselves from the sun, each carried a
feather fan. All vassals wore only a mantle of coarse agave fibre
and a loin cloth. Nowadays all generally wear cotton shirts and
mantles and trousers; they cover themselves at night with blankets,
whereas in ancient times they only covered themselves with the
mantle they wore in day time. The chieftains used to eat game
birds and some domestic fowl. The commoners only ate the cooked

(2 OFFICIAL REPORTS

leaves of the cactus or agave and other wild herbs. Nowadays all
generally eat maize bread and chicken and beef or mutton.

Previous to the Conquest, in olden times, they were very healthy
but nowadays they suffer from disease and do not live as long.
The natives believe that it is on account of the little work and
much feasting that they now have.

TEOTIHUACAN

They governed by means of some laws they had, in accordance
with which they punished malefactors. One of these laws decreed
that those who committed adultery and were found in delicto
fragranti, were handed over to the relatives of the offended party
and were beaten to death publicly within two days. If by chance
the offended one forgave the crime the pair were not punished be-
yond the fact that the wife was separated from her husband. If
the latter returned to her he incurred penalty of death for he was
regarded as having consented to the adultery committed. This
law only applied to the wife who had been received by the husband
after negotiations with her relatives followed by the celebration of
a wedding, during which the bride and groom were anointed with
a yellow pitch or wax named jahualt. The woman who had re-
ceived a man without this ceremony was a concubine and not a
wife and even if she committed adultery she was not punished.

The person who stole ears of corn, squashes or beans, even
though he were a child, was condemned to pay for each stolen ear
or squash, a woollen blanket named quachtli. If he had no means of
paying he incurred the penalty of death and his head was publicly
pelted with stones as a warning to others. Adults who stole cloth-
ing, feathers, stones or other articles of value incurred the death
penalty if the stolen goods were not restituted. In the latter case
the thief became a life-long slave. When an Indian man and wo-
man, married according to the customary ceremonies, happened
not to treat each other well and often quarrelled, the chieftain or
elder of the quarter in which they lived, summoned them and in-
quired what was the reason of their disagreement. If, being a
regular wife, she complained that her husband did not provide her
with necessaries, or that, instead of supporting himself by working
in his corn-fields or farm he amused himself, this constituted a
cause for separation, as was also the case when the wife was lazy

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73

and did not serve her husband. An equal division of property was
made when a separation took place.

The slave who escaped from his prison and made a public decla-
ration that he had done so before the elder of his quarter, was ac-
quitted of his imprisonment and set free by said elder. If war
-captives, while being led to the temple to be sacrificed to the idol,
were by chance able to escape and reach the summit of the pyramid
where the idol was, and get behind this, he was acquitted of said
death and sacrifice. .

The inhabitants of Teotihuacan used to carry on warfare with
the people of Huejotzinco and Atlixco and used to fight with bows,
arrows and wooden sabres edged with sharp obsidian points (ma-
cana). The usual costume of the chieftains in time of peace con-
sisted of a mantle of fine agave fibre, a loin cloth and sandals. In
war time the chieftains and others who had distinguished them-
selves in warfare wore a cotton armor and various devices; some
disguised themselves as herons, or ducks, or eagles. Others dis-
guised themselves by wearing the skins of pumas, jaguars, wolves
(coyotes), deer or other animals. The common Indians only car-
ried bows and arrows and wore no device whatsoever. They went
naked excepting for a loin cloth and coarse mantle of agave fibre.
Nowadays they all wear cloaks, cotton shirts and trousers; they
sleep on beds and cover themselves with woolen blankets. They
eat good food, boiled maize, domestic and wild fowl, beef and
mutton.

In ancient times most of them sustained life on the boiled leaves
of the cactus and agave, or roots, or mice, snakes and other reptiles,
and were healthier because of this and because they were more
accustomed to exercise and hard work than nowadays. ‘The
natives realize that the luxury they now live in and the little work
they do is the cause of illness, because they now fall ill whenever
they make any exertion, especially on account of the pulque which
they are accustomed to drink from childhood and which does them
much harm.

QUESTION XVI

It is to be stated, about all towns of Spaniards or Indians,
whether it is situated in a mountain, valley or open plain, and the
name of the mountain or valley. The district is to be recorded with
the meaning of everything in the native tongue.

74 OFFICIAL REPORTS

TEQUIZISTLAN

This town is situated in a plain, among canals and close to the
lagoon. Towards the North it is open on all sides but there is a
small mountain there. which is named Tlahuilquitl because the
natives say that in ancient times they saw fire come out of said
mountain and that it illuminated a great part of the country;
therefore they call it the ‘‘mountain of light.’”’?! To the Northwest
there is another large mountain within its boundaries. It is named
Yelocotl because it has plentiful game, so the Viceroys of this New
Spain have used it as a hunting ground.

TEPECHPAN

The town is situated in a plain at the base of a rough hill and is
open to all sides. Near it, at a distance of a quarter of a league, in
the confines of Texcoco, there is a medium-sized, round hill which
is named Tlahuilquitl, thus named because the natives say that in
said hill there used to be fire which gave light at night; therefore
they named it ‘‘the mountain of light.”

AcoLMAN

Acolman is situated at the foot of a hill, in a plain open to all
sides. At a distance of about half a league there is a mountain
named Tlahuilquit! and another big mountain named Yelocotl.
The meaning of these names is given in the descriptions of Tequi-
zistlan and 'Tepechpan.

TEOTIHUACAN

This town is situated in a vast plain wherein there are many
springs, as has been declared above.

QUESTION XVII

State whether the town is situated in a healthful or unhealthful
place and if unhealthful the cause for this, also the kinds of illnesses
that are prevalent and the remedies employed for curing them.

1 It is interesting and important to learn that, within the memory of man, a small volcano
in this vicinity was still active. Compare with the evidence presented in note 1, p. 53, tending
to prove that the name “‘ Tenan” was given to the large volcano in the same region while it
was periodically active. The name ‘“‘ Yelocotl’’ may be derived from ‘‘ Yeloa”” = a crowded
place, or “‘ Yeltia’’ =to flee or cause to flee.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 73

TEQUIZISTLAN

The situation of this town is unhealthful on account of being very
damp. Its inhabitants suffer from fever and cure themselves with
nettles and a kind of lily, which afford them some relief.

TEPECHPAN

The situation is healthful. The usual illness is fever which pro-
ceeds from their working in their seed lands. They cure themselves
with cooling things. Those that are to die only live eight days.

ACOLMAN

It is a place of medium healthfulness and has bad night dews.
The prevalent illness among the Indians is headache which they
cure with cooling herbs.

TEOTIHUACAN

It is a healthful region although the natives sometimes suffer
from headache and fever, which maladies they cure with herbs and
roots of cooling qualities.

QUESTION XVIII?

How far or near is any remarkable mountain or mountain range;
in what direction does it lie and how is it called?

QUESTION XIX

State what principal river or rivers pass close to the town; at
what distance they do so; how abundant they are and whether
there is anything remarkable about their sources, their water, its
water-supply and the land it irrigates, also whether it is employed
or could be employed for irrigation on an important scale.

QUESTION XX

Cite the remarkable lakes, lagoons and fountains and any notable
things there may be in the district of the towns.

1 As the answers to Questions X VIII to X XI, and from XXIII to X XVII, are either omitted
or scant, these questions are grouped together.

In the case of Question XXXII and others to which no answers are given, the questions
are printed as being interesting in themselves and completing the questionnaire.

76 OFFICIAL REPORTS

QUESTION XXI

Mention the volcanoes, caves and all other remarkable and ad-
mirable works of nature there may be in the district, which are
worthy of being known.

TEQUIZISTLAN

At the East of this town the river named San Juan passes in a
deep canal at a distance of two arquebuss shots and it irrigates
nearly half a league.

TEPECHPAN

To the East of the town at a distance of half a long league, at the
confines of Texcoco, is a range of mountains, the names of which
are not given as they are not. very noteworthy. There is no river
or fountain, only the river of San Juan passes through the town,
dividing into two canals which irrigate the land of said town for a
distance of half a league.

ACOLMAN

The river named San Juan passes through the town of Acolman,
dividing into four canals, each conveying the measure of two oxen
of water and irrigating nearly a league of land.

TEOTIHUACAN

Towards the North lies a big mountain which the natives name
Tenan and it has given birth to many other mountains. On the
eastern slope of the aforesaid mountain, about half way up, is a
chasm in which one hears a great noise which appears to proceed
from the interior, at a distance of twenty yards. This seems to be
the noise of the water which descends from the said mountain.
The natives are convinced that it is water, because in the whole
plain that extends between the town of San Juan and the confines
of Texcoco there is no river nor spring other than the one at the
head of the town of San Juan which the natives associate with the
water which makes a noise in the mountain.

In said plain, for a circumference of a league, between the head
of the town of San Juan and Otumba, there are many large and
small caves, some as extensive underground as an arquebus shot..
From these they extract the saltpeter with which gun powder is

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 77

made in His Majesty’s Munition House in the City of Mexico.
Thirty Indians are usually employed every week in extracting said
saltpeter and the train of mules which conveys it to the City of
Mexico is famous.

QUESTION XXII

Describe the native trees that commonly grow wild in said dis-
trict, and the profit gained from their fruits and wood. State
what they are or might be good for.

QUESTION XXIII

Mention whether the cultivated trees and fruit trees in the
district brought there from Spain or elsewhere do well or not.

QUESTION XXIV

Mention the grain and seeds and other plants and vegetables
which have served or serve as food for the natives.

QUESTION XXV

State what plants have been introduced there from Spain and
whether wheat, barley, wine and the olive flourish; in what quantity
they are harvested and whether there are silk-worms or cochineal
in the district and in what quantities.

QUESTION XXVI

Mention the herbs or aromatic plants with which the Indians
cure themselves and their medicinal or poisonous qualities.

QUESTION XXVII

Describe the native animals, birds of prey and domestic fowl
and those introduced from Spain and state how they breed and
multiply.

TEQUIZISTLAN

They have trees of the native cherry and a quantity of agave
plants which yield sweet juice and fibre. When cooked the leaves
furnish food and when. dried supply fuel. They have no other

78 OFFICIAL REPORTS

fruit trees, for the earth contains saltpeter and they could not grow.
The seeds they sow are maize, chia, huauhtli, and beans, also some
wheat, about fifty fanegas [bushels] more or less. ‘They breed
dogs from Spain and some native ones which multiply. Of the
wild native animals there are coyotes, and some hares and rabbits.

TEPECHPAN

Within the confines of this town there are some quince and peach
trees and some native cherry trees. In one of the dependencies
named Maquizco they grow a quantity of pear, peach and quince
trees which give fruit at Christmas. Throughout the whole dis-
trict there grow quantities of agaves which yield sweet juice and
fuel. The natives cultivate and gather for their food maize, beans,
squashes, peppers, chia, and huauhilt. Of Spanish vegetables they
have lettuce, radishes, onions and parsley. They have wheat
which, although the quantity is small, serves as provision for the
natives. They have raised quantities of dogs of those brought
from Spain and a few of the native ones. Of wild animals there are
coyotes.

ACOLMAN

They have a quantity of the native cherry tree which produce
much good fruit. They have walnut, pear, and quince trees and
vines in the orchard of the monastery of this town. Of agave and
cactus plants, which are the principal food of the natives, there is
an abundance. They cultivate maize, beans, chia, and huauhtl, on
which they live. They have no other vegetables out of careless-
ness, for they would grow well in this district. They cultivate
wheat with and without irrigation, and it does very well, but they
only sow a small quantity.

TEOTIHUACAN

They have an abundance of the native cherries, of the edible
cacti and agaves which sustain them, and which they sell in the
neighboring towns. In said town and its confines they harvest
much maize, beans, huauhili, and chia for their maintenance. They
also raise some Spanish vegetables. The natives sow but little
wheat although what is raised is very good. |

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 79

QUESTION XXX

State whether there are salt works in or near said town and from
where they get their supplies of salt and of all other things they
need for sustenance and clothing.

TEQUIZISTLAN

In ancient times they used to make salt in this town with which
they provided the City of Mexico. For the past thirty-eight
years they have given up doing so because the number of inhabi-
tants have decreased and because the water of the lagoon has risen
and covered the salt beds from which they extracted the salt.

TEPECHPAN

They lack salt and procure what they need from the City of
Mexico or the town of San Cristobal Ecatepec or from Exqui-
payaque, a dependency of Texcoco. For their clothing they pro-
cure cotton from the estate of the Marques del Valle.

ACOLMAN

The salt they use is brought from the towns of Tequizistlan and
Acatepec and Mexico; the cotton which they use for clothing
themselves is brought fda the land of the Marques del Valle and
from the mountain of Meztitlan.

TEOTIHUACAN

There are no salt beds in said town or its dependencies, so all
that is consumed there is brought from the City of Mexico, from
the town of San Cristobal or from the mountain range of Meztitlan
and the hot lands. The cotton they use for clothing 1 is brought
from the region of Panuco.

QUESTION XXXI

Describe the form and construction of their houses and the ma-
terials for building them that are found in the towns or the other
places from which they are brought.

TEQUIZISTLAN

The houses and constructions in which they live are generally
built with stone foundations and adobe walls covered with flat

80 OFFICIAL REPORTS

roofs. The stone needed for building is to be had in the neighbor-
hood. The timber required is brought from the woodland of Tex-
coco, distant four leagues.

TEPECHPAN

All of the houses in this town and its dependencies are generally
built with stone foundations, adobe walls and flat roofs.

ACOLMAN

All of their houses and structures have stone foundations, adobe
walls and flat roofs. They have an abundance of stone.

TEOTIHUACAN

All the inhabitants of this town and its dependencies live in
houses built of stone and adobe, with flat roofs. The houses of the
principal personages are curiously and elaborately constructed.!

QUESTION XXXII

Describe the fortresses in said towns and the strongholds there
are in their vicinity and within their confines.

QUESTION XXXIII .

Describe the trade and traffic and dealings with which the
Spanish and native inhabitants of the town support themselves
and state with what produce and how they pay their tributes.

TEQUIZISTLAN

The Indians live by farming. They have the custom of buying
cotton brought from the Marques del Valle and of this they spin
and weave skirts and mantles (mantas) with designs, that they
sell. The natives of Acaltecoya, subordinate to Tequizistlan, deal
in fish and game birds and pay their tribute with these.

1 In a document dated 1563 mention is made of the great palaces then occupied by Alonso
Bazan, a descendant of the Kings of Texcoco, who was the native lord and encomendero of
Teotihuacan.

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 81

TEPECHPAN

The inhabitants of this town live by cultivating their lands and
raising hens and have no other trade or dealings. They pay their
tribute to their Encomendero in agaves, money and maize as is
generally done by the other towns in New Spain.

ACOLMAN

The inhabitants live by farming and raising hens and have no
other trade or dealings. With their profits and the sweet juice of the
agave, they pay their tribute in money and in maize.

TEOTIHUACAN

The natives incline to farming and its produce is their principal
means of support. They raise Spanish and native fowl for nourish-
‘ment and have no other trade.

QUESTION XXXIV

State the diocese of the archbishopric or bishopric or abbey to
which the town belongs; the district in which it is situated and
its distance in leagues. State in what direction from it lies the
cathedral town and the capital of the district and whether the
leagues are long or short; the roads straight or winding and the
country flat or rough.

QUESTION XXXV

Mention the cathedral or parish church or churches in each town
with the number of beneficiaries and prebends in each; if the town
contains any chapel or noteworthy endowment, state whose it is
and who was its founder.

QUESTION XXXVI

Mention the monasteries of friars and convents of nuns of each
order there may be in each town; when and by whom they were
founded and the number of friars and nuns therein. Mention also
anything noteworthy there may be in the towns.

82 OFFICIAL REPORTS

QUESTION XXXVII

Mention also the hospitals, colleges and pious institutions there
may be in said towns and by whom and when they were instituted.

TEQUIZISTLAN

This town belongs to the diocese and archbishopric of the City
of Mexico which lies to its Southwest at a distance of five leagues
of level country. 'The boundary of the district of Tequizistlan lies
to the North of the City of Mexico at a distance of a quarter of a
league.

TEPECHPAN

Tepechpan pertains to the diocese and archbishopric of Mexico ~
and lies in the district of the town of Tequizistlan, a quarter of a
league to its North, and five leagues from the City of Mexico,
wherein the cathedral stands.

ACOLMAN

The town belongs to the archbishopric of the City of Mexico
where the cathedral of the diocese stands, at a distance of five long
leagues of level country. In Acolman there is a monastery of
friars of the order of Saint Augustine, in which there is a school
in which grammar is taught. Twenty-four monks reside therein
and five priests for the administration of religious doctrine to the
natives. They have a very grand church with a vaulted ceiling
and a very sumptuous portal of carved stone; also a good orchard
within the monastery walls, in which they gather quantities of
Spanish walnuts and cherries, of native cherries and plums. This
monastery was founded in 1539, the provincial of the order of Saint
Augustine being the reverend father Friar George Davila.

TEOTIHUCAN

The town of San Juan and its dependencies pertain to the diocese
and bishopric of the City of Mexico and is two leagues distant
from Tequizistlan, the headquarters of the Corregidor. In San
Juan there is a monastery of Franciscan friars who administer the
doctrine to the natives. They have a good church and fair house
in which three priests and a lay brother generally reside. The

TO HIS MAJESTY, PHILIP II 83

monastery was founded in 1566, the provincial of the Franciscan
order being Friar Miguel Navarro and the guardian of said town
Friar Francisco Perez.

PARAGRAPH L

And after the said description has been written down, it is to be
signed by the persons who helped to make it. It is to be sent
without delay with this instruction, to the person who may have.
forwarded it. :

TEQUIZISTLAN

The description of this town was written therein on the twenty-
second of February, 1580, and was signed by the Corregidor Fran-
cisco de Castafieda and those who knew how to write, namely
Juan de Vera, Antonio de San Francisco, .................. [an illegible name
followed by the word fiscal, that is prior or censurer].

Benito Martinez, clerk.

TEPECHPAN

Description written in the town of Tepechpan on the twenty-
third of February, 1580, and signed by the Corregidor Francisco
de Castafieda, and those who could sign: Juan de Vera; Don An-
tonio de Herrera; Rodrigo de Sandoval.

Brentto Martinez, clerk.

ACOLMAN

The description of the town of Acolman, under the encomienda
of Francisco de Solis, citizen of Mexico City, was written in said
town on the twenty-sixth of February, 1580, those present while
it was being drawn up being: the Corregidor Francisco de Cas-
tafieda, Benito Martinez, Alonso de Solis, Francisco de Miranda,
and Juan de Vera, Spaniards; Don Diego Vazquez, Governor,
Don Guillermo de San Francisco, Alcalde, Lucas de Molina, Don
Cristobal de Santiago, Pablo Zihuatecpanecatl, Regidors; Don
Juan Bautista, Diego Atecpanecatl, and Antonio de Santiago,
chieftains and natives of said town.!

1 The above entry appears as a superscription to the report from Acolman and the signatures
follow separately at the end.

84 OFFICIAL REPORTS

Signed by the Corregidor Francisco de Castafieda and those
present who could write, who were Juan de Vera; Guillermo de
San Francisco, Alealde; Diego Vazquez, Governor.

BrEniTO Martinez, clerk.

TEOTIHUACAN

The description of the town of San Juan Teotihuacan, under
the charge or encomienda of Don Antonio Bagan, Chief Alguazil
of the Holy Office of the Inquisition,! was written in said town on
the first of March, 1580, there being present Don Cristobal Pimen-
tel and Luis de San Miguel, Alcaldes; Antonio de San Francisco,
Mateo Juarez, and Antonio de los Angeles, Regidores; Andres
Dalbiz, Don Lorengo and Francisco Quaunochtli, chief Indians of
said town; Alonso de Servantes and Juan de Vera, Spaniards. It
was translated by Francisco de Miranda; interpreted and signed
by the Corregidor and those who knew how to write: Francisco
de Castafieda, Andres Dalbiz, Damian Bravo, Gabriel de i Cruz,
Francisco de Miranda.

Benito Martinez, clerk.

1 It is deeply significant and illuminating to find that absolute authority, civil and ecclesi-
astical, was wielded in Teotihuacan, the ancient religious centre, by Don Antonio Bagan, who,
like his brother Don Francisco before him, was an Inquisitor of high rank, being Chief Con-
stable of the Holy Office. There can be no doubt that much of the destruction and covering
up of the ancient monuments in Teotihuacan must be attributed to the Inquisition, whose
officers systematically and ruthlessly carried out the policy of exterminating idolatry, initiated
by Cortés and Bishop Zummaraga, a task in which they were enthusiastically aided by the
native Catholic neophytes.

PraBopy Museum Papers Vou. XI, No. 2, PLATE 1

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OF THE

PAPERS

OF THE

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

VoL. XI, No. 3

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY
OF HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND
MIXED BLOOD

LESLIE C. DUNN

BASED UPON DATA COLLECTED BY

ALFRED M. TOZZER

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1928

PRINTED AT THE HARVARD UNIVERST’

NOTE

At the time when Dr. Tozzer gathered the data which are
analyzed in this paper practically no measurements had
been undertaken on living Hawaiians. Later Dr. Louis
Sullivan made most extensive anthropometrical investiga-
tions in Hawaii. His lamented death came before his data
could be worked up. It has thus seemed worth while to pub-
lish the results of the investigation of the present data al-
though they are far less adequate than those collected by
Sullivan.

Dr. Hooton, who suggested this investigation, has given
amply of his time and attention throughout its analysis,
and has seen it through the press owing to the absence of
_ Dr. Dunn in Europe.

The publication is made possible through the kindness of
George P. Castle, Esq., of Honolulu, and of Dr. Tozzer.

CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY, Dvrector

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS,
December 15, 1927

CONTENTS

re ee eo PE ee a, 91

Me Vee ee ig Ale eee a 91

Pe eeecneevinterial... 60. Ss ne as ee we ee miele ae 92

ireimeuieo the Niaterial . 6°... . a... ee ned eae eG a OD

Meee eo rce SuD|eCtGesy 2 ew ee 95

Perera ele 8 a ea ea Se ee ey /

eee tcoueory.in await... 28.2. 2 Ve ee ek. 98
BAH Eel

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE Native HawallAns

etree ecmcntis fe ee al U0

ieetevegence ancts Analysis. 9. 2 2... et Pe. 100

Peper es mogychorm. fo 2, Oe, eae aoa

1 ne AC eo a Pea Ng tage = 101

Pee eMC t,o es ee a ee 103

Pmeinoemec ouliine Leight... .°. 0. 2k ee ee 103

iyetieigit of phoulder: . . . . .°. . Ee ee ee 104

Sembee tenrOrmArin = oS PP OA 105

Bell errch rm engin oy ko a wee a 106

DIMI ei Se ma See eg 106

Conclusions from bodily dimensions ........ 108

By Cephalic and Wacial Characteristics. . ..... =... =. 108

Me er eleionie ss a OE. Pee aa (1

me ee TCACthice ss. 2 oy oe we Re ee mee til

CANES eo a ge eel 113

Mey ee ercomatic diameter 2-2. ges bk ee a 114

femevasion-wienton Height 2, 2.0. 4). 2 +8 2 21D

Pee is clgde< a ke 115

VIT- Nasal Height, Breadth and Shape ......... 117

Conclusions from dimensions of head and face. . . . 119

en Oneviensurable Characteristics . . 0. i... 2°. 6: eo. 119

Pee Color. 3 Te We ara MON eee ee esi Y

pe eee 2 a i ee 120

meee COLON) aa oe a oe RO ee ee ees

MMSE Ae CTs Wars. ay te. yee eo ee ee ae 11

em sow OTT eet ee se eS a She Uo ‘gh ge nm. en ee 122

Vaemeiongvolen<Kprcanthic) Fold .°. 2°... . . £45 123

SPM LOPMAC ISIE Gere ete css Skee he eh we a8 123

Pereeme ere LYAsts (co 8 ee es Se a we we Pee 123

D. General Characteristics of the Hawallans ........ 124

deetitomoceneiiy Of hype... ,94 Gon eae Se ee 125

Pi HOTtI eters fe es kx. ata te ee eee es 128

90 CONTENTS

PART II

DESCRIPTIONS OF OTHER RaAcEs IN HAWAII AND OF DESCEND-

ANTS FROM CROSSES OF HAWAIIANS WITH OTHER RACES

Chinese and Chinese-Hawaiians .......
Description of the South Chinese
Comparison of Hawaiians and Chinese

First Hybrid (F;) Generation from Hawaiian x Chinese .
Mensurable Traits. y2. <2) 5 20 ee

Non-mensurable ‘Draits .. 22 3 eee

General Character of the F,; Generation . . . .
Homogeneity .. op te 2 ok Ge a

Resemblances to Parente
Backcross Generations .. . Wy I et re

Matings of F,; with Hawaiians . 5 Rs ee : : .

Other Hawaiian-Chinese Mixtures . . Ree:
Diseussion .3). 0. 20h ena ee
White Races and White- Hawaiian Hybrids

The European-Parent ‘Types =e ee :

Comparison of Hawaiians and Whites

First Hybrid (F,) Generation from Hawaiian x White pits
Body Sikes ea ee ot a 6 ee
Head Measurements .°. .. .... 0 en
Face Measurements . .°. ... . >) ee
NOS6. 5 ltr ct eet eae ae 4
Hair’ 0g ea) See Sie
Eye Color at ac). 6

Skin: Color. —. 2...) 8 Sa ae
Other Tratts 2. 2 0 = ae eee
Second: Generation «=. 2-7 °2 4.04) ee

Backeross Generations ... ew)

Comparison of Mensurable Traits ‘> 42 pt ash ee
Hybrids of Hawaiians and South Europeans. . . .
Other Hawaiian-White Mixtures. .... .

General Summary and Discussion ..... . . ; ; oe
Appendix .. . iat Pb wih a age ae ee
Tables of Raw Data. Le oy oe ee”

Bibliography

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF
HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD

INTRODUCTION

Ir is the purpose of this report to present and discuss a large body
of detailed evidence bearing on the physical consequences of racial
hybridization in the Hawaiian Islands. The study was under-
taken and the data were collected and analyzed in the hope that
the results would contribute towards a solution of the important
problem of race mixture. We have regarded this problem chiefly
as a biological one, the solution of which depends on the acquisi-
tion of knowledge concerning the inheritance and interrelationship
of the specific traits which differentiate races. The most needed
contributions at present appear to be detailed descriptions of racial
traits and of their behavior in inheritance.

This is particularly true of the great problem presented by the
population of the Hawaiian Islands. Here, as is evident from the
data presented by several observers, e.g. (1, 2, 3) +, a great natural
experiment in racial hybridization is taking place, in which the
blood of the native Hawaiian people is being mingled with that of
most of the chief racial groups of the world. This amalgamation
of diverse races is, aS our own observations and those of others
show, of comparatively recent origin. The racial elements con-
tributing to the hybrid population are still present in Hawaii
together with the progeny of various crosses between them. A
tempting opportunity is therefore offered for anthropologists and
geneticists to study the inheritance of racial traits.

PLAN OF THE STUDY

It was this opportunity which in 1916 prompted Professor A. M.
Tozzer and Professor E. A. Hooton of Harvard University to
make plans for studying the races and hybrids of Hawaii. The
writer, as a student of genetics, was called upon to collaborate in

1 The titles of papers which are referred to by number in the text will be found in the bib-
liography at the end.

92 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF

the plans, and to undertake the analysis of the data relating to
the descriptions of the pure races and of their hybrids. Our plans
called for (1) the accumulation of anthropometric data for as many
subjects of known race or mixture as could be measured; (2) data
on the fertility, longevity, mental capacity, etc. of subjects of pure
and mixed races; (3) analysis of these data with the objects of dis-
covering the mode of inheritance of specific traits; the effect of
crossing on physical traits, growth, fertility, vigor, etc. and the
differences between various racial crosses in these respects. We
also hoped to obtain from these data some light on the vexed
question of the racial origins and affinities of the population of
Hawaii and of other Polynesian peoples as well.

It is not surprising that so ambitious a plan remains unfulfilled;
for, with the time and resources at our disposal, we were able to
accomplish only a part of what we set out to do. It soon became
evident, for example, that the data on hybrid peoples had value
directly in proportion to the completeness of our knowledge of
the parent races. There proved to be almost no data of value on
the physical traits of living native Hawaiians, and it became our
first task to make good so far as we were able this deficiency in our
knowledge. We also realized that the behavior of racial traits in
inheritance, or even the descriptions of racial hybrids could only
be established from observations on a relatively large number of
subjects from each cross. We therefore limited our efforts to ob-
taining anthropometric descriptions of living native Hawaiians, and
of the descendants of crosses between Hawaiians on the one hand,
and members of the Chinese and white races on the other, since
these crosses offered the largest amount of material and the clear-
est differences in parental traits. It is principally this evidence
which will be presented in the reports which follow. A general
interpretation of the evidence and its relation to other racial
crosses has not been attempted, since our own and other com-
parative data are not as yet complete enough to justify general-
izations.

COLLECTION OF THE MATERIAL

The field work for this study was undertaken by Dr. Tozzer,
who spent the summers of 1916 and 1920 in and about Honolulu.
Prior to beginning the actual work of observation, a standard

HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 93

schedule of measurements to be taken was drawn up by Dr. Hooton,
and a technique of measurement decided on and practised which
should conform throughout to the reeommendations of the current
international agreement. (4) The provisions of this agreement,
therefore, serve as a description of the methods employed in this

The following measurements were taken:

study.

Body i
Py.

Head 76
8.

Face 10.
ET

15:

Weight.*

Stature.

Height of Acromion.
Height of Dactylion
Chest circumference.
Sitting height.

Length.

Breadth.

Minimum frontal diameter. *
Bizygomatic diameter.*
Bigonial diameter.*

. Nasion-menton height.
. Nasion-prosthion height.
. Nasal height.

Nasal breadth.

The following observations were made:

8.
9,
10.

NED OV o9 PS

Skin color (on an unexposed part).

Head hair: color, form.

Eye color.

Eyelids: obliquity of opening, epicanthus.
Brow ridges: degree of development.*
Forehead: height, breadth, slope.*

Nose: height and breadth of root, height and profile of
bridge, inclination of septum.
Prognathism.

Thickness of lips.

Dynamometric pressure.

* Measurements taken on only a portion of the series.

Measurements of the circumference of the chest and of the mini-
mum frontal and bigonial diameters of the head were made only
on those subjects measured in 1916. Most of the measurements
were made on fully clothed subjects, and in some cases shoes
were worn. A deduction of from 2 to 4 cm. was made from the

94 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF

height, acromic height, and dactylic height measurements of sub-
jects wearing shoes, depending on the height of the heels worn.

Skin color was recorded for relatively few of the subjects because
of the unsatisfactory color scales available and because of the
difficulty of finding unexposed areas of skin on which to judge the
normal skin color of the subject. Even on those subjects for which
observations are recorded, the color determination is of doubtful
accuracy because of the possible tanning of the skin. In 1916 skin
colors were recorded in terms of Broca’s color scale; in 1920 the
better scale of von Luschan (Hautfarben-Tafel made by Puhl and
Wagner, Rixdorf) was used. Comparison was in all cases made
with the volar surface of the forearm in the least exposed part.

Hair colors were distinguished by name only and the following
terms used in recording: black, very dark brown, dark brown,
brown, light brown, reddish brown and yellow.

Hair form was recorded as straight, wavy (slight or medium),
curly, frizzy, kinky and wiry.

The eye colors recognized were black, very dark brown, dark
brown, brown, light brown, hazel, blue, and light blue.

Strength was measured by means of Collin’s Dynamometer and
the squeeze pressure recorded in kilograms.

In addition to the information noted on the face of the schedule,
each subject was questioned concerning his parentage, and the
race of his father, mother and other known ancestors was recorded
on his schedule, together with any additional or confirmatory
evidence concerning his pedigree. Such additional evidence was
obtained from school or other public records, relatives, friends, etc.
An effort was made also to get information concerning the relative
fecundity and viability of the various races and hybrids; and to
this end, the number of children, in the case of parents, or of
brothers and sisters in the case of unmarried subjects; was sought
for and recorded. The absolute amount of information obtained
in this way was too meager to be of use and is not reported here.

The choice of the subjects to be observed was governed in the
1916 observations by a desire to obtain data on pure Hawaiians
and on crossbred subjects in general. In 1920 a particular effort
was made to increase the series of pure Hawaiian observations, and
to obtain data on hybrids involving Hawaiian as one element in
the cross. The series obtained cannot be regarded as a random

HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 95

sample of the Hawaiian population, as far as the frequency of pure
races or of hybrids other than Hawaiian are concerned. It does
give a fair sample of the frequency and the stage of mixture be-
tween Hawaiian and other races, since all available persons who
had any Hawaiian blood were measured.

In respect to social, occupational, and local groups, it is improb-
able that a purely random sample of the population was secured.
The chief departure of our sample from a random one is its inclu-
sion of a relatively large number of subjects from each of a few occu-
pational groups. The individuals measured may roughly be classi-
fied as follows: fishermen, police, stevedores, teachers, members of
Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. and kindred organizations, school stu-
dents, workers in pineapple factories, and attendants at an Ha-
waiian church. The fishermen, police, stevedores, and possibly the
teachers, are from selected groups, probably above the average in
general size. The school and church attendants probably constitute
arandom sample, while the factory workers may deviate somewhat,
owing to occupational selection. Size characters and variability in
general may thus be somewhat higher than normal in a sample in-
cluding a greater proportion of the larger-sized individuals of the
population.

Most of the Hawaiians and part Hawaiians measured were na-
tives of the island of Oahu, on which Honolulu is situated, although
in the groups of stevedores and students at the summer school are
included a number of natives from other islands in the Hawaiian
eroup; Maui, Molokai, Hawaii, and Kauai. A key to the occupa-
tional groups and nativity of the subjects is given in Appendix
Table I.

TREATMENT OF THE MATERIAL

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBJECTS

The completed schedules were turned over to the writer for
analysis and were immediately classified and grouped for study.
All subjects reporting themselves as of one pure race were provi-
sionally grouped together; and, if no evidence from other records or
from physical traits appeared to contradict the statement of pedi-
gree, they were regarded as members of that racial group. Con-
siderable care was exercised by the original observer to exclude
doubtful persons from pure race groups, and additional precau-

96 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF

tions have been taken by the writer to exclude any subject with
characters obviously abnormal for his supposed group. Such
exclusion must be used with care however and is usually not ap-
plicable to quantitative characters which are so variable in the
purest races. Several eliminations from the pure Hawaiian group
were made on the basis of eye color, hair form, and other evidences
of mixture, chiefly with a white race or negro.

The cross-bred subjects had to be classified almost wholly on the
basis of their own statements, although in many cases these state-
ments could be verified. No check on these statements was avail-
able in the physical appearance of the subjects, however, since the
inheritance of most the racial traits involved was unknown. Hy-
brids were classified according to the race of their parents and the
number of generations intervening since the original cross. Using
as an example the hybrids between Hawaiians and Chinese, the
following classes were recognized:

1. F; Hawaiian x Chinese — The direct result of a cross be-
tween Hawaiian female and Chinese male, the subject’s pedigree
reading: mother Hawaiian, father Chinese.

2. F, Hawaiian X Chinese.— The result of a cross between two
IF’, hybrids; the subject’s pedigree reading mother one-half Ha-
wailan, one-half Chinese; father one-half Hawaiian, one-half
Chinese. The classification of this generation may contain a
few errors; since, unless we know the race of all four grandparents,
there is a possibility that the parents are themselves second genera-
tion hybrids. Because of the comparatively recent introduction
of Chinese in large numbers, this is not highly probable. There
is also the possibility that “one-half,’’ as a description of a racial
element in a parent, is merely a guess, and indicates only admix-
ture of the race named. The number of such hybrids is not large
and few wide conclusions are drawn from this generation.

3. BC F, X Hawaiian. — The result of a backcross of an Fy
hybrid to a pure Hawaiian, the subject’s pedigree reading: father
one-half Hawaiian, one-half Chinese; mother pure Hawaiian.

4. BC F; < Chinese.— The result of a backcross of an F; hybrid
to a pure Chinese, the subject’s pedigree reading: mother one-half
Hawalian one-half Chinese; father pure Chinese.

5. Other mixtures. — In this category are placed those hybrids
between two races which have been produced by crosses other

HAWAIIANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 97

than those outlined above, but in too small numbers to be classified
separately.

After such classification, the pure race and hybrid groups were
subdivided on the basis of sex, and again on the basis of age. Males
of 20 years and older and females of 18 years and over were classi-
fied as adult. Means and other constants for quantitative char-
acters have been calculated from these adult series of each sex.
In summarizing descriptive, non-mensurable characters the im-
mature subjects have also been included.

‘STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The original data have been tabled separately by race, sex and
age, and are to be found in the appendix, Tables I to V. The
principal ratios or indices calculated for each individual have been
incorporated in these tables. From these raw data, the frequency
distributions, which are presented by separate measurements in
the text tables, have been formed. With the numbers available it
has been necessary to use rather coarse groupings in seriating the
data for statistical treatment. In general, that grouping has been
used which by actual test gave the smoothest graduation, except
that for any one measurement, the classification was determined
for the males (or the large group), and applied arbitrarily to the
females (or the small comparable group).

From the grouped frequencies of the larger distributions have
been calculated the mean, the standard deviation, the coefficient
of variation, and the probable errors of each of these constants,
by the usual formulae as given in treatises on statistical methods
(5,6, 7). In the case of distributions containing few (less than 20)
individuals, the constants have been calculated from the un-
grouped material.

The variation constants for indices and proportions have been
calculated by Pearson’s formulae. (8)

M, = 7" (1 — V3 —171,2V1V2) is for the mean
2
and
¢ = = 4/ Vi —V3-— 2r1,2V1V2 for the standard deviation;
2

where M; is the mean of the first variable such as head breadth,
M, the mean of the second such as head length, Vi and V2 the

98 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF

coefficients of variation (divided by 100) of the first and second
variables respectively, and ri, 2 the coefficient of correlation be-
tween the variables. Although the means of indices as calculated
by the use of this formula have not differed significantly, in the
present study, from the means as usually calculated directly from
the frequency distributions of indices, the method here used in-
volves less labor and is probably more accurate than deducing
variation constants of indices from the array of individual indices
without regard to the correlation between the component variables.

In order to obtain comparative data from cranial material, we
have in several cases reduced cranial to cephalic indices by means
of the correction factor proposed by Craig (9). Other methods
are noted as used.

The separate seriation of measurements by sex and age has
resulted in many small and irregular distributions, and we have
not tried to combine them by reducing both sexes to a common
scale or by correcting the observations on immature subjects to an
adult basis. Larger distributions and smoother graduations might
have been obtained by this method, yet I believe that there is a
basic objection to such a practice. If corrections for age or sex
are to be applied, they must be calculated as the differences be-
tween the means of two distributions. One must be taken as the
standard, and a certain proportion of this standard added to each
individual of the distribution to be corrected. This results in no
addition whatever to the original data, but only in multiplying
the distribution by a portion of itself, along with the errors which
attended the original measurements. The resulting amplified
distribution appears larger than the standard; its probable error
is lowered by the larger number of individuals in it, although the
number of original observations remains unaltered. These changes
are probably wholly fictitious and likely to be deceptive and it
seems a much sounder procedure to face the paucity of numbers
and practise the rigid conservatism in drawing conclusions which
this condition dictates.

RactAL FREQUENCY IN HAWAII

A racial classification of all of the subjects observed is given in
the table on page 177, and the detailed data on all subjects
measured will be found in the appendix tables. 3

HAWAITANS OF PURE AND MIXED BLOOD 8)

About a third of the 508 subjects measured were pure Hawaiians,
while all except a few of the remainder were descendants of crosses
between native Hawaiians and other races. The few individuals
not included in these classes were scattered among various pure
races of the table (A), and mixtures either unknown or not involving
Hawaiian (EK). The hybrid groups involving Hawaiian as one
element have been broken up into (B); those in which only one
other race beside Hawaiian was involved, producing a dihybrid
combination; (C) those involving two other races besides Hawaiian
(trihybrids); and (D) those in which more than two other races
participated. The diliybrid groups were by far the most numer-
ous, comprising 247 of the whole 295 crossbred subjects. The
trihybrid mixtures were few, only forty-five in number, while
numbers of individuals with four races represented in the ancestry
were practically negligible. On the whole the more races involved
in the ancestry of an individual, the fewer representatives are
found, and, incidentally, the less reliable the pedigree as given.

A preliminary discussion of the frequency and approximate dates
of origin of the principal racial crosses in Hawaii has already been
published. (10) A fuller treatment of this matter, leading to a
general picture of racial hybridism in Hawaii, will be given in the
parts of this study devoted to the data on the hybrid subjects. At
present our chief concern is with the principal and perhaps most
interesting single race involved; i.e., the native Hawaiians.

100 AN ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF

PART I

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC DESCRIPTION OF THE NATIVE
HAWAIIANS

PRELIMINARY STATEMENTS

Our description of the physical anthropology of the native
Hawaiians rests on observations of 158 subjects, concerning whose
pedigree there seemed to be no reasonable doubt. Several pre-
sumptive Hawaiians were excluded from this classification because
of conflicting pedigree records, or by the possession of certain
features falling far outside the normal range of variability of the
bulk of the Hawaiians observed. Of these 158 subjects, 85 were
males and 73 were females. Adults were separated from immature
subjects for analysis of all characteristics affected by age, and the
constants for pure Hawaiians were calculated from the records of 74
males of age 20 and over, and of 34 females of age 18 and over.
The numbers of immature subjects were too small to be treated in
separate age groups, nor could they furnish information conc

The text goes on. The rest is in the file.